Teacher Competency Requirements

This article focuses on teacher competency testing and requirements, as well as how the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 has affected teacher requirements for both new and current teachers. The concept of Highly Qualified Teacher is explored and evaluated, including the many interpretations and expectations for ascertaining Highly Qualified status. Examples of state requirements and some of the challenges they are facing are also included.

Keywords Highly Qualified Teachers; HOUSSE Provision; No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB); Praxis; State Requirements; Teacher Accountability; Teacher Certification

Overview

Teacher certification has its roots in the 1800s when schools of education programs and teacher preparation were different for rural communities than for cities and towns. Although professional educators felt that all teachers should be prepared through formal training programs and be certified to teach, the general public was not in agreement. Rural communities tended to believe that good teachers are born and not made and that only a minimum of formal training in pedagogy was necessary to be an effective teacher. People who resided in cities and towns were likely to prefer that their teachers have formal training and credentials. During the early 1900s to about 1930, professional educators gained more control over the nation's schools and the licensing of teachers. Local communities slowly lost the ability to determine for themselves who could teach in their classrooms. Formal university-based education requirements for teaching replaced old certification exams, which professional educators considered inferior.

In the late 1950s, the teacher preparation system was being criticized again for its low standards of entry and exit, the overemphasis on pedagogy rather than subject mastery, the lack of a professional knowledge base, and the lack of reliable data that showed teacher training actually had a positive relationship to effective classroom teaching. By about 1975, many people both in the profession and the general public doubted the effectiveness of teacher certification and training (Angus, 2001). With the advent of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), certification and teacher competence have come to the forefront once again with many entities trying to gain control over the preparation and licensure of teachers so that there is some cohesion within the United States. NCLB has brought about even more change as to what constitutes a qualified teacher and how new teachers are being vetted before attaining more permanent certification.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001

The No Child Left Behind Act requires states to measure the extent to which all students (particularly minority and disadvantaged students) to have "highly qualified teachers." It also requires states to adopt goals that will make sure all instructors are qualified enough to meet teacher quality goals (U.S. Department of Education, 2004).

Under the No Child Left Behind Act, states had until the 2005-2006 school year to ensure that their teachers were designated as highly qualified. This caused states and teachers to debate what exactly was meant by "highly qualified" and what needed to be done to comply with the law. According to the law, to be “deemed highly qualified, teachers must have a bachelor's degree, full state certification or licensure, and must prove that they know each subject they teach. Teachers in middle school and high school must prove that they know each subject they teach by having one of the following” (U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p. 2):

• A major in the subject they teach

• Credits equivalent to a major in the subject they teach

• Passage of a state-developed competency test

• High, objective, uniform state standard of evaluation (Housse)

• An advanced certification from the state

• A graduate degree (U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p. 2)

High, Objective, Uniform State Standard of Evaluation lets states develop another method for current teachers to show their adequacy and fulfill the necessary requirements in regards to their subject interest. Only those teachers employed by 2002 may use the HOUSSE provision to prove they know the subjects they teach. “Proof may consist of a combination of teaching experience, professional development, and knowledge in the subject garnered over time in the profession” (U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p. 2). However, Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings ruled in late 2005 that states may avoid the punitive loss of funding for another year if they were making good-faith efforts to comply with this provision of the law (Keller, 2006).

The U.S. Department of Education found that a common theme was emerging from their visits with teachers and state and local officials across the country. The Department felt that states were not taking full advantage of the flexibility, in both requirements and funding, that were already at their disposal. The HOUSSE provision means that No Child Left Behind does not require current instructors to attend a higher educational institution to obtain a degree in each and every subject they are otherwise qualified to teach. The Department informed states that they “have the authority to define which grades constitute elementary and middle school and may determine, by reviewing the degree of technicality of the subject matter being taught and the rigor of knowledge needed by the teacher, whether demonstrating competency as an elementary or as a middle-school teacher is appropriate. States may also approve rigorous content-area assessments that are developed specifically for middle-school teachers aligned with middle-school content and academic standards. NCLB provides flexibility in developing assessments for teachers to demonstrate subject-matter competency because states may tailor teacher tests to the subjects and level of knowledge needed for effective instruction to meet state standards” (U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p. 2).

requirements for instructors who are highly qualified: “apply only to teachers providing direct instruction in core academic subjects. Special educators who do not directly instruct students in core academic subjects or who provide only consultation to highly qualified teachers in adapting curricula do not need to demonstrate subject-matter competency in those subjects. According to the U.S. Department of Education, Congress, in the context of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), is considering modifying how the highly qualified teacher provision of No Child Left Behind applies to special education teachers” (U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p. 2).

In 2004, the Department of Education instituted more flexibility to help states comply with the No Child Left Behind Act by addressing concerns of rural school districts, science teachers, and multi-subject teachers. Approximately one third of all school districts in the United States are considered rural, and the concern of these districts was that No Child Left Behind did not properly cater to the special demands that teachers face in rural schools because many rural instructors must educate children on more than one topic. The added adaptability was intended to give more time to teachers to prove that “they are highly qualified by allowing teachers in eligible, rural districts who are highly qualified in at least one subject to have three years to become highly qualified in the additional subjects they teach. Teachers who fall under this designation must be provided professional development and intense supervision or structured mentoring to become highly qualified in those additional subjects” (U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p. 1).

Science teachers are often the instructors of several fields of science. In some states, a teacher can have a degree in a general science subject rather than a specific physics or biology degree. This helps to not limit the teachers in the subjects they are qualified enough to instruct. Therefore, the Department of Education decided that states may decide - based on their current certification requirements - to allow teachers of science to prove that they are able to teach effectively the subjects of one or more fields of science. Current multi-subject teachers aren’t required to obtain a degree or certificate in every instructable subject, but rather they can utilize their knowledge base of a broad field of education to instruct their students adequately. All current teachers may use the HOUSSE provision as determined by each state, but: “for some multi-subject teachers this alternate process could become protracted and repetitive as they go through the HOUSSE process for each subject they teach. Therefore, under the new guidelines, states may streamline the HOUSSE evaluation process by developing a method for current, multi-subject teachers to demonstrate through one process that they are highly qualified in each of their subjects” (U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p. 1).

Even with the increased flexibility and further clarification of the NCLB's provisions, states are still not completely meeting the requirements of the federal law. The Department of Education has been to all states, reviewed their plans, and submitted recommendations. For example, Keller (2006) discusses that the Department of Education officials found fault with several ways Connecticut determines a teacher's highly qualified status. They told the state it was not collecting the data necessary to show whether adequate progress was being made, called on the state for not reporting to the public their plans and progress in meeting teacher quality goals (as specifically stated in the law) and felt that the state allowed too much variability in the way veteran teachers demonstrate they are highly qualified. Although Connecticut received more objections than other states, it is indicative of the types of challenges that states are still facing when trying to comply with the No Child Left Behind Act more than four years after it was signed into law. The federal monitors found no state completely on the right track at the time of their visit. The Department of Education noted that some of the same issues have surfaced in many states, such as the requirements that veteran elementary teachers must meet. Also, almost every state was out of compliance in how it was determining highly qualified teachers who teach more than one subject in social studies, such as history and geography, because it was felt that the states do not do enough to ensure that their teachers had knowledge of the subjects they taught (Keller, 2006).

Highly Qualified Teachers from State to State

NCLB's "highly qualified" teacher provision only states that most teachers are required to attain certification, which is nothing new for the teaching profession. It is up to each state to establish its own certification requirements; and as the examples below show, some seem to be struggling and others continue to look at how they define quality.

The Massachusetts legislature was considering a bill that would require teachers to obtain a master's degree in order to get a permanent license even though studies have shown that a teacher's advanced degree provides no value for raising student achievement. The bill also calls for intensive mentoring and induction efforts and the creation of "master teacher" designation. These master teachers would not necessarily make any additional income but would be leaders and mentors in the schools. They would also have to have National Board certification and pass a "challenging content test." With respect to teacher evaluations, evidence of teachers' work may include classroom observation, teacher-developed lesson plans, collaboration, and communication but with little emphasis on whether or not their students are actually learning anything (National Council on Teacher Quality, 2006).

According to "Education Week," new teachers in Arizona will have to pass a test of classroom skill via videotape to obtain a long-term teaching license, which will make the state only one of three states that requires a videotaped lesson to move from an initial credential to a more permanent one. Connecticut and Indiana are the other two states that require a videotaped classroom lesson. Teachers initially licensed will need to pass the assessment in order to receive a license that is good for six years. After receiving initial licensure, teachers will have three years from the time they start teaching to produce a videotape in the classroom and send it in with a written analysis to independent evaluators. The state believes this new assessment component will set a much higher standard than the old licensing systems, which only included one test on subject matter. The belief is that the videotapes will show whether or not new teachers have the ability to communicate effectively with their students (Keller, 2005).

While NCLB explicitly exempts charter school teachers from having to be fully certified, one California charter high school lost an instructor with a doctorate in the classics from Harvard and 22 years of high school and college teaching experience because he did not want to go through two years of certification classes and spend $15,000 (National Council on Teacher Quality, 2006). Arizona has denied permanent certification to an Indiana teacher who has 30 years of experience teaching elementary music and high school music, holds a master's degree in music education, and was certified in Indiana. He was denied permanent certification and only given an emergency certificate because he had not ever taken a course in methodology. While he had not taken a specific course in methodology, he had taught the course at a state university in Indiana for nine years (National Council on Teacher Quality, 2006).

There is also some debate on how many times a teacher should be allowed to retake the certification exam before license revocation. All states currently allow teachers to keep taking the licensing exams if they fail, and most states give teachers anywhere from a one-year to a four-year grace period to pass. A television station in Dallas, Texas did a report on that state's tolerance of teachers who fail the state certification test. The station interviewed one teacher who took the state certification test 55 times over a 14-year period before finally passing. Another teacher interviewed failed the state certification test 49 times over 11 years and felt the reason was the process was political and the tests don't "relate to teaching kids" (National Council on Teacher Quality, 2006).

Some states facing teacher shortages have looked at lowering the scores needed to pass licensing tests. North Carolina, which was facing teacher shortages in certain subjects and in certain schools, had its legislature pass a bill that would have lowered the scores needed to pass licensing tests for teachers coming from out of state. The bill was vetoed by the governor (National Council on Teacher Quality, 2006). Out-of-state teachers are expected to pass the Praxis II according to the same cut scores that new North Carolina teachers must achieve (National Council on Teacher Quality, 2006).

As some of the examples show, there will more than likely always be some challenges when dealing with teacher certification, and it can be difficult to cover every possible scenario affecting teacher certification. However, it is important that states try to balance what is rational and what is good policy and provide teachers with some form of recourse when there is a preponderance of documentation that they should be considered "high quality," and it is equally important for the nation's students that poor teachers should not be allowed to use a loophole in their state's law to continue in the classroom.

Further Insights

According to "Education Week," nationally certified teachers do not necessarily make better instructors or help students do better in the classroom, according to a study of more than 300 middle-school teachers. The researchers found that students of board-certified teachers performed only slightly better than students of teachers who were not board certified. This particular study was conducted in North Carolina in three different school districts and included in-class evaluations (Honawar, 2006). Using alternative routes to certification has both detractors and supporters, but it has become more widely accepted as states try to comply with the No Child Left Behind Act. It can be a fine line to develop a High, Objective, Uniform State Standard of Evaluation (HOUSSE) plan that ensures veteran teachers do have to face stringent enough requirements to gain highly qualified status while still allowing fair credit for all the years they spent in the classroom.

According to Sack (2005), some researchers and teacher education experts are concerned that the high objective uniform state standard of evaluation (HOUSSE) plans approved by many states are reversing a decade of progress that saw more exacting requirements for those seeking teacher certification, and they contend that many states have weakened their existing regulations (which some teachers could not pass). Most states have established a HOUSSE plan to help their veteran teachers who do not meet the measures of subject-matter knowledge needed to attain highly qualified status. Since it is up to each state to determine their own criteria and develop their own HOUSSE plan, these plans can vary widely from state to state. As of the end of 2005, 30 states had built point systems through HOUSSE to help their veteran teachers pass the highly qualified requirement, with critics contending that these systems are subjective and sometimes meaningless. States that have been credited with setting up tougher requirements to pass the subject matter component of NCLB can be overwhelmed with all the time and effort that is necessary to go through college transcripts, administer subject-matter tests, and count up all the points.

Alternate Routes

California has a few different alternate routes in place to determine highly qualified status. Elementary teachers must have a bachelor's degree and a state license or an intern certificate. They must also pass a multiple-subject exam or prove competence though a tiered HOUSSE plan. Veteran teachers in middle and high school must have a bachelor's degree and a state license or an intern certificate. Secondary teachers must also pass a subject-matter exam, have a major or college coursework in the subject they are teaching, earn National Board for Professional Teaching Standards certification, or complete the HOUSSE requirements. The first tier of the state's HOUSSE system includes earning points for teaching in the core subject area with points given for every year in the classroom. It also includes having relevant college coursework, having standards-aligned professional development, including participation in the national board certification process and leadership activities, including mentoring. If teachers cannot accumulate enough points to attain highly qualified status with the first tier of accomplishments, then the second tier criteria can be implemented, which uses direct observation and portfolio assessment (Sack, 2005).

A state that decided to go with more exacting standards in their initial interpretation of NCLB with disastrous results is Pennsylvania. The state required all middle school teachers to take a test of their subject area and ended up having one out of every four teachers, all of them holding certification from the state, not passing the tests aimed at a tenth-grade skill level. When the state realized it was adhering to the law more strictly than the other states, it dropped the test requirement. Now Pennsylvania teachers can prove that they are highly qualified from a list of less rigorous choices that are similar to those of other states (Walsh, 2004).

In Conclusion

One of the challenges of teacher certification is that no matter what level of knowledge is required to attain certification these exams cannot really determine the competency of the more practical, necessary skills such as dealing with parents, maintaining discipline in the classroom, and having the ability to use alternative methods of instruction to effectively teach students who have different learning styles (Savage & Briggs, 1993). Therefore, licensure examinations must be able to discriminate the good practitioners from the poor ones but also be able to take into consideration cultural bias. One of the many challenges of determining highly qualified teachers is when states set their cut scores on teacher licensure exams so low and provide so many opportunities to pass the tests that they do nothing to help weed out unqualified teachers, which is not in keeping with neither the spirit nor the intent of the No Child Left Behind Act.

Terms & Concepts

Cultural Bias: Cultural bias is interpreting and judging in terms particular to one's own culture, without consideration of the differences in another.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, formerly the Education For All Handicapped Children Act, mandates that federal funds be granted to all states in order to help provide disabled students between the ages of 3 and 21 with a proper public education that will satisfy the individual needs of the student and help them prepare for future employment opportunities and independent living.

Learning Styles: Learning styles are the different ways people learn. Most students learn visually by seeing things done first-hand. Others prefer learning through auditory or tactile methods, or a combination of the three.

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards Certification: This certification is a national voluntary system of certifying teachers and meets most states' definition of "highly qualified teacher" under the No Child Left Behind Act.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB): The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 is the latest reauthorization and a major overhaul of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, the major federal law regarding K-12 education.

Pedagogy: Pedagogy refers to preparatory instruction and the profession of teaching.

Portfolio: A teacher's portfolio is a collection of work representing professional growth and activities. It may also contain work that illustrates the creation of a product to show the evolution through various stages of conception, drafting, revision, and presentation.

Praxis: Praxis assessments give academic testing to states as a portion of their teaching licensing certification process. Praxis I tests calculate the basic skill level, which Praxis II exams quantify the subject-specific education and teaching abilities that pose basis for a more general knowledge.

Bibliography

Angus, D. (2001). Professionalism and the public good: A brief history of teacher certification. Washington, D.C.: Thomas B. Fordham Foundation. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED449149) Retrieved July 1, 2007 from Education Resources Information Center. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/16/cb/17.pdf

Eckert, S. (2013). What do teaching qualifications mean in urban schools? A mixed-methods study of teacher preparation and qualification. Journal of Teacher Education, 64, 75-89. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=84490780&site=ehost-live

Honawar, V. (2006). Teacher certification. Education Week, 25 , 19. Retrieved July 1, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=21573968&site=ehost-live

Karelitz, T. M., Fields, E., Levy, A., Martinez-Gudapakkam, A., & Jablonski, E. (2011). No Teacher Left Unqualified: How Teachers and Principals Respond to the Highly Qualified Mandate. Science Educator, 20, 1-11. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=65236093&site=ehost-live

Keller, B. (2005). New teachers in Arizona must prove skills via videotape. Education Week, 25 , 27. Retrieved July 1, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18860789&site=ehost-live

Keller, B. (2006). States still ironing out "Highly Qualified" kinks. Education Week, 25 , 26-28. Retrieved July 1, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=20638277&site=ehost-live

National Council on Teacher Quality. (2006). Teacher Quality News and Reports. Retrieved July 2, 2007, from National Council on Teacher Quality http://www.nctq.org/nctq/jsp/list_stories.jsp?title=Key+Issues&header_image=key_issues_16.gif&search_page=key_issues.jsp&issueTypeId=99991

Neugebauer, R. (2013). Developing Competent Teachers. Exchange (19460406), , 28-30. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87539675&site=ehost-live

Sack, J. (2005). Teachers: Point system available to earn "qualified" status. Education Week, 25 , 16. Retrieved July 1, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18830141&site=ehost-live

Savage, K. & Briggs, L.D. (1993). Professional testing of teachers. Education, 113 , 430. Retrieved July 1, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9308195451&site=ehost-live

U.S. Department of Education. (2004). New No Child Left Behind flexibility: Highly qualified teachers. Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov/nclb/methods/teachers/hqtflexibility.html

Walsh, K. (2004). Through the looking glass. Clearing House, 78 , 22-25. Retrieved July 1, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=14935966&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Mack-Kirschner, A. (2003). The Teacher's Guide to National Board Certification: Unpacking the Standards. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Rominger, L. & Laughrea, S. (2001). Your First Year as a High School Teacher: Making the Transition from Total Novice to Successful Professional. New York, NY: Three Rivers Press.

Wilkerson, J. & Lang, W. (2007). Assessing Teacher Competency: Five Standards-Based Steps to Valid Measurement Using the CAATS Model. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.