Teaching Physical Education

This article offers a brief history of physical education in American public schools, addresses the unique instructional standards of each school level, and presents problems presently facing physical education. Physical education is an important curriculum course in America's public schools. There are unique aspects of teaching physical education at the elementary, middle grades and high school levels. Yet, curriculum standards at all levels have one thing in common: stressing the importance of heightening student fitness levels in order to improve the health and quality of life for the student.

Keywords Aerobics; Assessment; Education; Elementary Education; Fitness; Games; Middle Grades Education; Motor Skills; Physical Education; Obesity; Secondary Education; Special Olympics; Sports

Overview

One of the most important, but least appreciated, courses in education settings is physical education (PE). As anxiety continues to amplify for students to perform well on high stakes tests, the value of physical education will be heavily scrutinized, making the possibility of eliminated PE from school schedules an option for many principals (Stevens-Smith, Fisk, Williams, & Barton, 2006). The purpose of physical education in America's schools is profound due to the role it plays in helping students develop physically and socially.

Physical education is the most powerful tool to help students establish habits that positively influence their quality of life. Physical education teaches younger students how to appropriately interact with their peers, how to develop their motor skills and how to learn the basic skills associated with most sports and games. During the middle-school years, PE can play a critical role in helping some students deal with awkward growth spurts, uneasy social situations, and in refining sporting skills for future playing at an advanced level. At the high school level, PE is generally the only time for exercise and organized play that is allowed in the busy, often hectic schedules of older students. There is no doubt that physical education plays a vital role in supporting the academic progress of students of every age. Associated health-related skills are invaluable as students become independent adults who are engaged in the busy responsibilities of working and having a family.

History of Physical Education in America

Physical education in America has a relatively short history in public schools. The subject of Physical education actually originated as early as 500 B.C. in Greece. The idea of physical fitness focused on the historical Olympic competitions. The concept of Physical education was actually first mentioned in American historical documents by Benjamin Franklin in 1749 but was not put into school curriculums until the early 1800's. It was Charles Beck, known to be the first physical education teacher in America, who introduced a course in physical education at the Round Hill School in Northampton, Massachusetts in the 1820's (Sparkes, Templin & Schempp, 1993). During this time, physical education was geared solely for males until Catherine Beecher, sister of the famous Harriett Beecher Stowe, introduced calisthenics into the curriculum for young ladies at the Hartford Female Seminary in 1823. Her purpose in creating this program was to improve the posture and poise of the young ladies enrolled in the school as they developed socially and academically (Davenport, 1980). Between 1850 and 1900, Dudley Sargent introduced fitness and weight equipment to calisthenics programs that already existed in private schools. Another influential person in the field was Pierre de Coubertin. His 1913 book titled, "Essais de Psychologie Sportive" introduced the idea of sports psychology (Cratty, 1989). This prompted educators to consider the importance of physical education on the overall well-being of students through the theory that healthy bodies increased mental health. In 1851 the first chapter of the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) opened its doors in America, helping many sports gain popularity, and adding to the popularity of physical education.

After the Civil War, the inclusion of physical education inflated its popularity in schools across our nation. People believed that students who participated in regular physical education classes were healthier, had better hygiene, and were better able to avoid awkward and uneven growth spurts. Colleges added competitive sports programs in the early 1900's, which gave rise to physical education popularity due to the need to heighten the physical fitness and strength of the athletes. As World War I erupted, physical education faded from school curricula due to the absence of males in the schools. After the war, it regained popularity, which continued through the beginning of World War II. This war found Americans stepping up their fitness skills. Men needed to improve their fitness levels in order to be better soldiers and women had to be able to handle the physical demands required when forced to adopt the manual labor jobs performed by those left to become soldiers.

By the 1950's, physical education was a requirement in over 400 American universities and in thousands of secondary schools. The onset of the Korean War in 1950 found many potential soldiers were not physically fit enough to fully participate in war activities. This led to the creation of in 1956 the President's Council on Physical Fitness by President Dwight Eisenhower. This supported the rise of fitness standards through physical education instruction in schools across our country. President Kennedy continued supporting the President's Council on Physical Fitness and took interest in the development of physical education for students with special needs. President Kennedy adamantly supported the efforts of his sister, Eunice Kennedy Shiver, as she began the Special Olympics in 1962. In 1966, President Lyndon Johnson created the Presidential Fitness Awards that rewarded students who achieved prescribed fitness levels through a battery of local school testing. The items in this test primarily had significance for military preparation. These tests included pull-ups, push-ups, sprints and distance runs, standing broad jump, and distance throwing (Hartman, 2001). This fitness program is still used in many physical education classes today.

Significant Influences on Physical Education

The next profoundly significant influence on physical education came in 1972. Title IX erased discrimination based on gender in all federally funded educational programs. Title IX launched countless new opportunities for women in competitive athletics and sports.

During the 1980's, physical education curricula were developed and implemented in schools. Most were created with the basic goals of improving student fitness levels, improving motor skills, and increasing knowledge of games and healthy lifestyles. They were designated for elementary programs, middle schools and secondary programs. Each level of instruction has distinct ways of addressing the above listed goals while being appropriate for the maturity and age of the targeted student.

In 1995, the National Standards for Physical education were created by the National Association for Sports and Physical Education. They serve as the definition and value for the purpose of physical education and clearly state instructional objectives for PE courses (NASPE, 1995).

Obesity & Physical Education

Today, one of the utmost goals of physical education, at all instructional levels, is to assist in the reduction of obesity in America's youth. In 2013 obesity affects 17 percent of American children and adolescents, more than doubling in numbers since the late 1980s. The US Food and Drug Administration (2002) stated that "Our modern environment has allowed these conditions (obesity and overweight) to increase at alarming rates and become a growing health problem for our nation" (USFDA, 2002). That report suggested that students in all grade levels participate in "daily, quality physical education" classes. Obesity is the cause of many health problems in our students, such as diabetes, hypertension, and high blood pressure. Regular physical education should address this potentially fatal issue due to the relationship between fitness levels and the quality of an individual's health. Physical education provides students with "more opportunities to exercise will help our children fight obesity, perform better academically, and grow up to be healthy adults" (Sherman, Collins, & Donnelly, 2007). Certainly, many educators use these statistics as reasons to support physical education programs in public schools at all grade levels.

Applications

Elementary Physical Education

At the elementary level, physical education is often taught by the regular classroom teacher. This was brought on in the late 1980's when schools were faced with financial deficits, did not have teachers trained as formal physical educators, and removed the time allotted for physical education to either additional academic time or to unstructured play time, frequently called recess. Despite these hurdles, Physical education has survived in many elementary schools. Physical education programs specific to elementary school curriculums are generally divided into 2 areas: primary grades and upper elementary grades.

Primary Grades

The areas of emphasis of physical education at the primary elementary level are to improve the level of fitness of the student and to improve their motor skills. This includes implementing a variety of fitness activities that incorporate aerobic and anaerobic activities. The chief activities accentuated with these young students in grades Pre-Kindergarten through 2nd grade are:

• Balancing & weight transfer;

• Jumping, leaping & landing

• Traveling & movement patterns

• Fine motor coordination

• Safety concepts

• Fitness

Primary students enjoy races & relays, even though the competition of winning in lieu of losing should take a backseat to the quality of event participation and fun. They enjoy dancing, moving, and using their imagination to stretch and exercise their muscles. They enjoy being offered a variety of play-like stations that offer them simplistic equipment, such as a jump rope or hula hoop, to explore for a designated period of time. They also enjoy pleasing their instructors and being recognized by their friends for unique and positive behaviors; therefore, they will eagerly participate in any activity for the intrinsic rewards associated with public recognition and praise. Many students' behaviors and attitudes are influenced by their fitness level and their physical abilities (Lambdin & McKenzie, 2003). Due to the social maturity of this level, most of the activities should be focused on individual activities, giving limited exposure to competitive activities. Structure that involves student-focused activities that develop their movement creativity is preferred. Additionally, all activities should be complimented with activities that are supportive of other academic activities, such as relating to pictures of movement, identifying shapes & colors, following directions, respect of personal space, and regard for others.

Upper Elementary Grades

Upper elementary classes, usually grades 3-5, must incorporate lifetime fitness skills while introducing skills that lead into games. Anaerobic and aerobic calisthenics are a vital part of the physical instruction for upper elementary students. Activities that introduce partner participation and small teams are important for this age when appropriately taught and supervised. Sportsmanship instruction is a critical element of all activities with upper elementary students, particularly since the individual levels of comfort and skill acquisition is so diverse among this age of students. Activities that develop the following skills should be emphasized until mastery is obtained:

• Kicking

• Striking an object with a bat or racquet

• Volleying

• Catching

• Coordinating body movement with these activities

Games should begin to allow for minimal levels of competition that is closely monitored by the instructor. All activities should be connected to other disciplines, such as journaling, reading, and conducting investigations. Fitness activities must include a strong element of personal accomplishment and fun to maintain student interest. Fitness activities that involve partners or are of a competitive nature are generally more popular than traditional adult fitness activities, such as walking or running laps around a track.

Middle Grades

The middle school period, usually grades 6-8, is a unique time of development for students. Students in these grades undergo immense changes in their physical stature, social development, and academic status. This age is characterized by transition, growth, exploration, and discovery. Relationships with peers, teachers, and the subject area are vital to the students' quality of participation(Pill, 2006). Instruction should be based on student-focused activities that are based on the needs of the learner and driven by student-based results. The learning environment must be safe for students since many are beginning to engage in risk-taking activities. The environment must be free from criticism, ridicule and embarrassment. Since middle grade students place high importance on social interactions, the physical education environment is the perfect setting to encourage collaborative interactions between students who rarely intermingle or work together.

Physical education for middle school generally follows a strict activity schedule that is comprised of instructional units. These units incorporate the development of skills specific to the activity or game, improving rules knowledge, game strategy, skills testing, and actual participation in the activity or game. Generally, the unit involves a pre-test and post-test of game rules, skills, and strategies. Assessment in skill development is also conducted at the conclusion of the allotted time for practice of specific skills. Frequently, sports are modified into games that are enjoyable and safe for middle grade students. For instance, students learn football skills but actually play a version of flag football, soccer and rugby skills are combined into a game called speedball, and basketball is rarely played in 5-on-5, full-court games.

The low level of fitness in middle grades students is an area of great concern (Wright & Karp, 2006). Unfit adolescents in the middle grade years can be plagued with hypertension, respiratory disorders, diabetes, orthopedic problems, emotional disorders, and high cholesterol (Berensen & Epstein, 1983). Sallis, Prochaska, and Taylor (2000) reported that adolescent activity and fitness levels decrease with age after the elementary years. Therefore, an important aspect of every middle grades physical education curriculum must include aerobic fitness activities. A component of fitness must be incorporated into each instructional period and students must learn to record aspects of their fitness, such as pulse, heart rate, and breathing rates.

Secondary Grades

Secondary education in high school, grades 9-12, offers a variety of physical education choices for instructors and students. Generally, these courses are mandated for graduation per the guidelines of the Department of Education for each state. Therefore, completion of a course warrants a credit amount toward their high school graduation credits or elective credits. Course offerings at the secondary level are typically more specific than what was offered at the middle school level. Secondary PE "courses should aim to create rich declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge bases of physical activity" (Livingston, 1996). The following courses can be found in the physical education course catalog for most high schools:

• Weight training

• Team sports

• Individual fitness

• Dance/gymnastics

• Outdoor recreation

• Specific courses that are specific to sports or fitness activities (such as bowling, tennis, swimming/diving, and golf)

Grades for physical education take on a different face at the secondary level. They generally use innovative quality instruction at this level, involving a variety of assessment techniques, such as skills test and rules tests, skill development activities, rules and strategy applications, and opportunity for skill application through supervised play or competition. Many physical education programs utilize technology and computer programs to enhance student participation in activities. For instance, students may be encouraged to record their weight-lifting accomplishments on computer programs that allow them to monitor their improvements and compare them to those of other students. Many weight training programs rely on advanced instruments that measure BMI, fat percentages and other key aspects of using weight lifting to increase strength. And, as schools are required to enhance student writing skills, it is not uncommon for students to write essays or reports related to the activity in which they are participating.

Viewpoints

Problems Facing Physical Education

Undoubtedly, one of the greatest problems facing the continuation of physical education in American public and private schools today is inadequate funding. Just as the arts are frequently poised to be eliminated from system budgets, physical education is often first to be considered to be purged from a school when budgets are restricted or inadequate for the needs of the school. Since state requirements mandate physical education credits for graduation and funding is frequently low, many school districts insist that physical education classes host large numbers of students which dramatically limits the quality of instruction and participation of those enrolled in the physical education courses.

Another major dilemma facing the field of physical education is the lack of qualified teachers. Physical educators must have a sound competency in the rules, history and skill mechanics of numerous sports, understand how to manage class arrangements and student behavior, must know how to prepare and evaluate lessons, and must be able to appropriately sharpen student skills in a variety of activities. Additionally, most physical education instructors, particularly those working at the middle and secondary levels, are expected to coach one or two sports. This involves having personal expertise in the sport, knowledge of skills and how to perfect the skills of their players, and how to manage all of the other aspects of coaching a sport such as supervising parent volunteers, directing tournaments, operating with budgets, and knowing the policies of the governing association for the sport.

Another problem specific to the elementary level is that many schools do not employ a certified physical education teacher but rely on the regular classroom teacher to handle the physical education content periods. This frequently means that the activities are led by an untrained instructor who lacks the understanding of how to develop individual skills, integrate skills into playing or game situations, and to conduct formal assessments of student improvement. Frequently, the physical education period is merely a semi-supervised recess or outside playtime. This type of situation does not provide students with adequate fitness improvement or with appropriate learning opportunities.

In Conclusion

The critical component of the success of any physical education program is the instructor. The physical education teacher plays an immensely important role in the participation level and attitude of students toward physical activities and fitness. Sound instructional methodologies must be utilized in order to provide students at any grade level quality instruction that has physical and emotional benefits. The physical education teacher also is highly influential in the perception of the school principal regarding the importance of PE in a school (Hattie, 2004). Physical education teachers are unique from other teachers in that they are involved in the physical development and socialization of students (Sparkes, Templin & Schempp, 1993).

Physical education in schools plays a vital role in the social and physical development of students of all ages. Since the 1800's, physical education has been deemed an important school subject. Physical education instruction is divided into 3 distinct categories based upon the age and grade level of students. The primary focus of elementary physical education is to learn basic skills, such as traveling, throwing, catching, and kicking. Skill refinement, game rules and playing strategies are the focus of middle grades physical education, while high school programs specialize even greater in specific activities, such as weight training, dance, or team sports. A critical component of every instructional level is to incorporate fitness skills for all students according the physical abilities and maturity of the student.

Terms & Concepts

Aerobics: A form of exercise that helps use oxygen by conditioning the heart and lungs. Generally used to reduce body weight, decrease cholesterol, relieve sleep disorders, improve heart disorders, and relieve stress. Incorporates stretching, strength conditioning and movement as primary exercises.

Assessment Methods: The process of documenting results, in this case in the education setting. The two major types of assessment are summative (carried out at the conclusion of a project or program) and formative (carried out throughout the occurrence of the project or program).

Body Awareness: The understanding of the relationship and proximity to a person's body to another person or object, how a person's body is moving, what is causing that movement, and how to control the movement.

Fine Motor Skills: The coordination of small muscle groups, such as the fingers. Used for catching, writing, grasping, and other small movements associated with that muscle group.

Fitness: A person's general state of health and well-being. Includes the triangle of physical health, emotional health, and mental health.

Obesity: The condition in which the amount of body fat exceeds 25-30% of a person's weight. Obesity is closely related to coronary heart disease, diabetes, hypertension, high blood pressure, and sleep apnea. Regular exercise, consuming a healthy diet, and close monitoring by a physician are typically the most effective tools used to relieve obesity.

Physical Education (PE): The study of physical knowledge, body movement, and the skills necessary to participate in sports or active games. Most public school programs incorporate PE courses into their curriculums to equip students with the knowledge, skills, abilities, and desire to maintain a healthy lifestyle into adulthood.

Special Olympics: An international organization that helps persons with intellectual and physical disabilities develop self-confidence, social skills, and a sincere sense of accomplishment through participation in sports training and competition.

Weight Transfer: Moving the weight of a person's body from one support to another, i.e. from one foot to another, from a foot to a hand, etc. An important skill for dance, gymnastics, and all activities that involve movement of any kind that change the location of support within the body.

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Suggested Reading

Graham, G., Parker, M. & Hale, S. (1992). Children moving: A reflective approach to teaching. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kristin Beasley, E., & Garn, A. C. (2013). An investigation of adolescent girls' global self-concept, physical self-concept, identified regulation, and leisure-time physical activity in physical education. Journal Of Teaching In Physical Education, 32, 237–252. Retrieved December 23, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89557489

Lund, J., & Kirk, M. (2002). Performance based assessment for middle and high school physical education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Metzler, M. (2000). Instructional models for physical education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Mosston, M., & Ashworth, S. (1994). Teaching physical education (4th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Publishing Co.

Richards, K. R., Templin, T. J., & Gaudreault, K. (2013). Understanding the realities of school life: Recommendations for the preparation of physical education teachers. Quest (00336297), 65, 442–457. Retrieved December 23, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=91536932

Rind, J. E. (2006). Teaching physical education. New York: McGraw-Hill.