Teaching Study Skills

Abstract

Study skills emphasize the process of learning. Teaching study skills in the K–12 public schools is essential at all grade levels and in all subject areas. Student mastery of study skills is a major objective of teachers. The teaching of study skills equips students for a lifetime of learning. Teaching students how to study has historically been considered a duty of schools. Many students do not practice good study habits and do not see study skills as valuable. Teaching good study skills and habits to students based on the findings of research has generally yielded positive academic-achievement results ranging.

Overview

Teaching good study skills and habits are basic to any education. Teaching study skills to students is equivalent to their learning how to study. The goal is to provide students with a study-skills "tool box," "bank," or personal inventory of strategies they may apply in studying and to employ in learning effectively. Study skills can be defined as learned abilities essential to acquiring knowledge and competence. Study skills emphasize the process of learning (Marshak, 1979; Marshak & Burkle, 1981). A general study skills program including curriculum-specific study strategies has value to students in each and every class. Study-skill competencies should constitute a significant part of educational objectives so as to prepare students for subsequent school work in elementary, middle school, and high school. Different aspects of study skills are needed at specific grade levels (Petercsak, 1986; Smith, 1959; Walker & Antaya-Moore, 2001).

The learning process is developmental and involves acquiring, growing, changing and improving students' knowledge. The ability to study efficiently and effectively is, in fact, a distinctive characteristic of most high-achieving students. The converse is also true; that is, many poor students are unproductive because they lack good study skills. Thus, the teaching of study skills increases students' learning capacities and assists them in adapting to various teaching methods and instructional approaches (Estes & Vaughn, 1985). Some strategies are more effective than others for each individual. Students must get to know their own study-skills strengths and weaknesses.

A Goal for Teachers. Student mastery of specific study skills is a major objective of teachers. Just as a good writer is one who has mastered writing skills, a good student is one who has mastered study skills. The development and mastery of study skills requires application and practice (Haladyna, 1997). Teaching study skills to students enables them to study efficiently and independently in a variety of learning activities, settings, and situations. The goal is that of continually increasing independence in the use of study skills. This allows students to construct their own understandings and learn how to learn on their own through self-study and discovery. The development of students' study skills equips them for lifelong learning (Reid, 1975).

Learning Theory & Psychology. The teaching of learning and motivation strategies related to study-skills development is based on educational psychology. Students' learning is dependent on the way they study, and learning theories attempt to explain students' learning via cognitive thinking processes and cognitive learning styles (Anderson & Armbruster, 1980; Tobias, 1984; Tuckman, 2003). Psychological principles such as metacognition are related to modifying the behaviors of students lacking study skills and who are poorly motivated to achieve academically. Affect and attitude are important in learning and maintaining students' motivation to learn. Motivation techniques are used in behavior modification to change study behaviors of students, overcome psychological resistance, and turn negative attitudes into positive attitudes (Brender, 1981; Weber, 1991).

Metacognition. Metacognition reflects students' abilities to change their thought processes to benefit themselves. Among the metacognitive strategies individuals can use to manage learning include planning, self-monitoring, and self-evaluating skills. When teachers teach metacognitive learning strategies to students, they are helping them to redirect less productive prevailing habits and attitudes into more productive habits and attitudes. Students gradually acquire the ability to teach themselves to learn (Haladyna, 1997; Wenden, 1998).

Self-Regulation. Highly successful individuals guide themselves systematically and have self-regulated thinking patterns. They learn how to self-monitor, self-reflect, and self-evaluate outcomes. In this process, they also utilize self-awareness, self-management, self-affirmation through personal feedback, and self-efficacy. In self-regulated learning, learners employ cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Self-regulated learners set goals, plan, and use a variety of cognitive strategies to monitor progress and continually adjust their behaviors after evaluating prior outcomes (Barnett, 1997; Haladyna, 1997; Masui & De Corte, 2005). Some studies have increasingly shown that, based on the structure of education at the college level and its emphasis on independent learning, it is especially important for teachers to work on developing the skill of self-regulation as early as possible, beginning even in primary school so that students can be better prepared for the changes that come with entering secondary school as well (Meusen-Beekman, Joosten-ten Brinke, & Boshuizen, 2015).

Reflection & Attribution. Reflection and attribution are basic components of self-regulated learning. Attribution generally occurs when students assign responsibility for their success or failure either to personal characteristics within themselves such as effort or ability, or conversely to something outside themselves such as luck or the difficulty of a task. Interventions to train students to reflect and to attribute constructively can improve metacognitive and conative learning abilities and positively impact academic achievement. The process of conation refers to aspects of mental processes and behaviors that are directed toward change and action. These aspects include impulse or natural tendency, volition, desire, and striving. Improving metacognitive, conative, and regulation skills improve general learning competence (Gage & Berliner, 1988; Haladyna, 1997; Masui & De Corte, 2005).

Psychological Barriers. The problem of procrastination involves the complex interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and affective attributes and is not solely due to deficits in study habits or time management. Students must overcome the urge to procrastinate in developing positive and responsible study habits (Rutkowski & Domino, 1975; Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). Emotional problems, tension, and anxiety cause psychological stress and discomfort which can interfere with students' studying, test performance, and academic effectiveness. Students may undergo a training program to reduce anxiety so as to improve knowledge retention and test scores (Tobias, 1984; Wark, 1970).

Applications

Study Strategies. Students must develop study strategies for independent learning, and be able to self-assess their own individual study skills. A fully developed arsenal of study strategies will improve academic achievement. General strategies suggested are to actively participate in class, follow directions of the teacher and seek teacher assistance when needed, review and study handouts and study guides, complete worksheets, learn test-taking techniques, and prepare for exams (Gage & Berliner, 1988). Basic study skills include locating, selecting, organizing, and retaining information. Study skills have been classified in a number of ways. Reid (1979) groups study skills into three relatively coherent clusters:

• Receptive skills,
• Reflective skills and
• Expressive skills.

Receptive skills relate to the intake of ideas through reading. Reflective skills deal with the interaction between the individual and what he or she reads or sees. Expressive skills are abilities to apply knowledge learned and to demonstrate its utility.

Estes and Vaughn (1985) classify study skills into four different categories:

• Work-study skills,
• Locational skills,
• Organizational skills and
• Specialized skills.

Work-study skills are the fundamental skills of study, such as note-taking and outlining. Locational skills refer to knowing where to find information residing in various reference sources. Locational skills are more generally referred to as research skills. Organizational skills include time management. Specialized skills are those needed for specific purposes such as test taking, using graphic aids, and following directions (Estes & Vaughn, 1985).

Research Skills. Research techniques are used to gather information and materials. Research requires knowledge of the use of both traditional and online reference sources. Research can be applied to class reports, written or oral research papers, essays, and themes (Basso & McCoy, 1996; Reid, 1979).

Teachers need to instruct students in skills related to the use of various reference sources and materials. These include reference skills, locational skills, and library skills. Students need to be taught how dictionaries can be used for information other than definitions of words, as well as how to use various other types of reference books including atlases, almanacs, and encyclopedias (Estes & Vaughn, 1985; Gabriel, 2005). Students also need to be taught how to locate, evaluate, and use online research sources.

Study Environment. Students should establish a familiar place for studying. Where one studies may be just as crucial as how one studies. The best place for productive studying is usually a special place that is not too comfortable and not too uncomfortable. Most students study and do their homework in a quiet place at home. The study space should be organized to minimize distractions so that students can maintain their concentration. Recognizing external or environmental constraints to learning is half the battle (Estes & Vaughn, 1985; Gage & Berliner, 1988; Green & Rankin, 1985). Minimizing distractions can be a challenge for students who are conducting research online.

Organization. Organizational skills are basic components of remediation in study-skills attainment or improvement. Students need to be able to organize study materials, plan using a step-wise process, identify and set goals, and use orderly work methods. Students should keep written records of class notes and assignments, and organize and maintain them in electronic and/or hard copy files using classification and alphabetization.

Organizational skills are the most crucial skills a teacher must diagnose and provide students assistance with. These skills aid students' learning and help make their study time more enjoyable and profitable. (Estes & Vaughn, 1985; Gabriel, 2005).

Time-Management Skills. Students also need to develop effective time-management skills. One requirement in managing time is to set aside specific study time. One motivational factor with regard to time management is for students to recognize how much time is being wasted (Angel, 1983; Edgington & Hyman, 2005; Estes & Vaughn, 1985; Gabriel, 2005; Gage & Berliner, 1988). Teachers must instruct students in time-management skills including how to use a planner for managing their time.

Reading-Study Skills. Developing reading-study skills is another study strategy. A strategy for reading more effectively and improving reading comprehension is for students to become active versus passive readers. They also need to know how to use subject headings and indices. Reading rates can be adjusted to the difficulty of the material, and speed-reading can be used for surveying and skimming chapters. Rereading is often necessary (Angel, 1983; Gabriel, 2005; Karlin, 1980; Petercsak, 1986; Reid, 1989).

Teachers must work to improve students' reading and reading-related skills. Reading skills consist of a body of subskills that can be classified into several major categories such as word recognition, word meaning, comprehension, and appreciation. Other reading-related skills include increasing students' vocabularies and reading rates (Karlin, 1980).

Textbook Study Skills. Effective strategies for studying textbooks include reading overviews and objectives at the beginning of chapters; reading the body or main text of each assigned chapter or section; reviewing objectives as needed to assess mastery of key concepts; studying chapter summaries and vocabulary lists; completing any assigned end-of-chapter questions, problems or exercises; and rereading, reviewing, and studying in preparation for tests (Borg, 1987).

Study Guides. Students should use study guides developed by teachers. There are two main types of study guides:

• The content guide, which focuses students' attention on the information that is read in the text.
• The process guide, in which teachers offer suggestions on how to read the text and ways to apply skills and read more efficiently (Karlin, 1980).

Note-Taking, Highlighting & Outlining. Three essential study skills for students are note-taking, underlining or highlighting, and outlining. There are two different forms of note-taking that are used as organizational skills—"lecture" note-taking and reading note-taking. Lecture note-taking requires listening, analyzing, interpreting, and synthesizing while writing. Reading note-taking is a difficult skill requiring analysis, interpretation, and synthesis. Note-taking serves as both an encoding device and as an external storage mechanism. Elementary and middle-school students need note-taking to write down assignments and directions. High-school students need more sophisticated note-taking skills (Estes & Vaughn, 1985; Rickards & Friedman, 1978). In the twenty-first century, as greater amounts of technology are being introduced in classrooms, teachers and students can take advantage of advanced tools that can aid in honing skills such as note-taking. There are a variety of applications that exist for computers and tablets, including those that allow students to engage in collaborative and visual note-taking, combining aspects such as sketching with writing for those students who learn and study better through more visual means (Chandler, 2017).

When possible, the most important things—terms, concepts and principles—should be highlighted. However, since public school students are not generally allowed to underline or highlight in their textbooks, they need to be taught to take notes and to outline the key words, concepts, and ideas they encounter in their reading. Outlining is a complex skill because it requires the use of analysis and synthesis to summarize material (Estes & Vaughn, 1985).

Teachers need to teach students how to take notes efficiently and effectively. Because note-taking is a complex skill when done well, teachers must provide students guidance and practice in the process. Among the systems of note-taking to be taught are outlining, clustering, and brainstorming as well as how to organize a notebook (Estes & Vaughn, 1985; Gabriel, 2005).

Listening Skills. Listening skills include learning to hear cues such as emphasis on key words and repetition. Listening skills are important when teachers present material, when students respond to questions or make reports to the class, and when students work in cooperative groups (Basso & McCoy, 1996; Devine, 1987; Gabriel, 2005).

Test Preparation. Another aspect of teaching study skills is test preparation. Teachers can prepare students for examinations by directly instructing them in test-taking strategies. Computer-assisted instruction and related technology using self-learning modules are beneficial in teaching study skills, test-taking skills, and writing skills (Angel, 1983; Gadzella, 1983).

Improved study skills and test-taking strategies help students in the preparation for exams and improve their testing confidence. Preparing for exams through relaxation methods reduces test-taking anxiety and increases student achievement (Angel, 1983; Beidel, Turner, & Taylor-Ferreira, 1999; Green & Rankin, 1985).

Other Techniques. The use of cognitive assistance devices such as mnemonic devices for memorization can aid memory improvement. Concepts for remembering and relating content can help in integrating and making use of prior learning. Breaking material that is to be learned down into smaller "chunks" or "bites" can be useful. Verbalizing—stating aloud and reading aloud—can be used for reviewing information and material to reinforce learning. Student questioning and debriefing strategies can also be beneficial study skills. Text can be represented diagrammatically using concept maps or other graphic aids. Map skills for reading maps; charting skills and understanding charts; graphing skills and interpreting graphs; and drawing, studying and reading timelines are other tools and aids which students should be able to appropriately select and utilize (Anderson & Armbruster, 1980; Edgington & Hyman, 2005; Karlin, 1980; Petercsak, 1986; Reid, 1979).

Teaching Methods. Teachers play a key role in facilitating students' learning of study skills. Study skills can be taught and learned within a short period of time using any one of various methods. Teaching study skills, instructing for study-skills development, and implementing a study-skills curriculum is accomplished using formalized teaching and training methods in study-skills laboratories, tutorials, "workshops," or development sessions (Haladyna, 1997; Petercsak, 1986; Reid, 1979).

Students develop proficiencies in study skills and increase their awareness of specific strategies through direct instruction, guided learning, targeted activities, and meaningful practice (Karlin, 1980; Petercsak, 1986; Reid, 1979). Teachers are responsible for identifying and correcting weaknesses and/or deficiencies in students' study skills so as to enhance their ability to learn effectively. Early diagnosis of deficiencies such as a student's inability to communicate knowledge or articulate ideas effectively in speech and/or writing is a way to provide individualized academic advising, counseling, and feedback to help students understand their strengths and weaknesses. In addition, teachers need to design learning plans for student study-skill remediation (Estes & Vaughn, 1985; Wenden, 1998).

A Study-Skills Assessment Program. An efficient method of assessing students' study skills involves a combination of strategies. Estes and Vaughn (1985) suggest a series of steps that teachers can use in devising a study-skills assessment program suitable for their classroom, as shown in Table 1.

Viewpoints

Time Constraints. Although teachers typically devote very little time to teaching study skills, whatever time they do use takes away time from teaching students academic content. The use of different instructional materials by teachers demands the application of varying study strategies. Many students do not practice good study and homework habits and do not see study skills as valuable, so it is difficult to change students' nonproductive and ineffective study habits learned over years. Some students may put up resistance to learning effective study strategies, and some teachers may take an intensive-instruction approach to study-skills training that may turn off some students (Green & Rankin, 1985).

Careful diagnoses of individual abilities in the study-skills area may be needed in order to prescribe sequences of instruction based on the skill needs of the individual. The study techniques that are likely to ultimately yield the greatest learning benefits are those that have the highest cost in student time and energy (Anderson & Armbruster, 1980; Fisher, 1970).

Research Results. Experiments in which students have been trained directly in better study habits have generally yielded positive academic-achievement results ranging from moderate to large (Gage & Berliner, 1988). Students self-report improvement in study habits through the application of effective study skills. Their improved study habits and use of more effective study strategies result in increased academic success as measured by improved grade-point averages and performances on related assessments (Stewart, 1984).

However, some researchers have found little connection between good study skills and improved performance. For example, students' ability to integrate new information with prior knowledge or existing schemata is more likely to help them learn and retain information more than their vocabularies or reading skills (Shaughnessy & Evans, 1986). Frase and Schwartz (1974) found that whether using questioning or answering as a study technique after prose reading did not affect the recall of information incidental to the questions. However, recall is improved for information related to the questions (Frase & Schwartz, 1974). Based on a review of other research studies and a small experiment performed on their own, Marken & Maland (1979) concluded that the effects of note-taking and underlining are probably very small.

Annis & Davis (1976), in comparing reading only with reading and note-taking or underlining, concluded that note taking and underlining while reading are most effective when learners prefer to read only but are unfamiliar with the topic. Reading only, without note taking or underlining, is least effective when learners prefer to read only but are unfamiliar with the topic. Reading only produces the best test scores when students prefer this technique and are familiar with the topic.

Terms & Concepts

Attribution: A psychological process in which individuals assign responsibility for their success or failure either to characteristics within themselves such as effort or ability, or conversely to something outside themselves such as luck or the difficulty of a task (Gage & Berliner, 1988).

Conative Abilities: Aspects of mental processes that are directed toward change and action; examples include impulse or natural tendency, volition, desire and striving. The process itself is called conation or conatus.

Independent Learning: Also called autonomous learning; term broadly used here to refer to any method used by students for self-study and individual knowledge acquisition.

Metacognition: A process used by individuals to change their own thought processes to benefit themselves.

Mnemonic Devices: Cognitive-assistance tools which aid memorization and improve memory.

Remediation: Process used to address and correct for weaknesses and/or deficiencies in students' learning, for example, study-skill remediation.

Self-Regulation: The ability to keep track of one's own behavior and to control it (Gage & Berliner, 1988).

Study Guides: Tools or aids developed by teachers to facilitate students' learning.

Study Habits: The ways and means students use to pursue and acquire knowledge; they can be good, positive, productive, efficient, and effective or conversely, they can be poor, negative, non-productive, inefficient, and ineffective.

Study Skills: Learned abilities, capabilities, and capacities for acquiring knowledge and competence.

Study-Skill Barriers: Behaviors that interfere with students' academic performance and the teacher's ability to assess academic progress; for example, poor time management, inattention during lectures and class discussions, inability to follow directions, and failure to complete assignments.

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Suggested Reading

Etty, J. (2004). Repetition is the key to revision. History Review, 22–23. Retrieved November 12, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=15218095&site=ehost-live

Gill, B. P., & Schlossman, S. L. (2004). Villain or savior? The American discourse on homework, 1850–2003. Theory Into Practice, 43, 174–181. Retrieved November 12, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=14361325&site=ehost-live

Hoover, J. J., & Rabideau, D. K. (1995). Semantic webs and study skills. Intervention in School & Clinic, 30, 292–296. Retrieved November 12, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9505154375&site=ehost-live

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McGuire, S. Y. (2015). Teach students how to learn: Strategies you can incorporate into any course to improve student metacognition, study skills, and motivation. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.

Paulsen, K., & Sayeski, K. L. (2013). Using study skills to become independent learners in secondary content classes. Intervention in School & Clinic, 49, 39–45. Retrieved December 11, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89499207&site=ehost-live&scope=site