Training for International Teachers

This paper begins by exploring the recent increase in international schools around the world, and the advantages and benefits that teachers may gain by teaching in an international school. Next, the paper illustrates the lessons and experiences of international teachers, so as to lead the way to the basic components that should be included as training for international teachers. The paper explains the need for a teachers "acclimatizing" in a foreign country, and gives basic advice on how this is done. The need for assimilating into the school as an institution, and the need to take into consideration specific factors about the students comprising a classroom in an international school are explained. Finally, the paper examines the possibility of adjusting domestic classrooms so as to give them the advantages found in international classrooms.

Keywords: Cultural Awareness; Culture Shock; Ethnocentrism; Ethnographic Approach; Intellectual Imperialism; International School

Overview

The Growth of International Teaching

In 2007, an article in The International Educator announced that, "…there has never been a better time to be seeking an international school teaching position almost anywhere in the world" (Broman, 2007, p. 1). According to the author, there has been a significant increase in the number of international schools around the world. In 2007, around 20 new international schools opened in the Gulf region, and international schools in nations of the former Soviet Union have seen rapid growth as well as strengthening reputations (Broman, 2007, p. 1, 33). However, the fastest growing region for new international schools is China. Broman writes,

Thus, there are several regions of the world where international schools have rapidly increased over the last decade. It is interesting, and most likely correlated, that these regions are those in which market economies have seen the highest growth. The global market has created a need for international teachers, and demand is at this time higher than the supply. In fact, the phenomenal growth has caused intense competition among international schools that are struggling to fill all their teaching positions. Many of these schools have developed a policy of year-round recruitment to meet their demand for teachers (Broman, 2007, p. 33).

Year-round recruitment may be necessary in part because less than two percent of all US, UK and Canadian teachers are even aware of the possibility of teaching in international schools ("The Benefits of International Teaching," 2009, p. 8). Yet there are many benefits to being an international teacher. For example, in many countries a foreign teacher's salary is tax free, and in most countries teachers make enough extra that they can save at least $5,000 — though in some countries savings can reach $30,000 annually. Additionally, most international schools supply teachers with housing, or the school offers a housing allowance in addition to the salary. International schools also provide full health insurance coverage, travel expenses, home leave compensation and sometimes even retirement plans ("The Benefits of International Teaching," 2009, p. 8).

The International Teaching Experience

But that's just the monetary side. Teachers consider many other rewards when deciding to teach in an international school, and some of these rewards have little or nothing to do with money. For some teachers, simply understanding a foreign land and culture, and growing from the experience is a reward in itself. As Melek (2008) observes about her teaching experience in Egypt, "There is something about being in a place in which you are not a tourist. You don't just adapt to it, you inhabit it" (p. 10). Wigford (2007) points out that learning a new language is an important benefit to international teaching (p. 2). He cites a study that gives still other good reasons for international teaching. According to that study,

Auger and Overby (2005), who taught in a China-based program, believe international teaching improved their teaching skills. They note that they "had the opportunity to reflect on the nature of our profession and the content of our discipline and to rediscover some of the joys of teaching which are ofttimes lost in the hectic academic and administrative environments in most U.S. universities" (p. 244). Melek makes this same point about feeling "renewed" in her teaching experience (2008, p. 10), while Shatz (2000) writes, "Teaching in Hong Kong forced me to re-examine every aspect of my pedagogy and, as a consequence of the self-reflection, made me a better teacher" (p. 141). Because so many educators mention this same beneficial aspect of teaching internationally, it seems likely that international teaching really does offer teachers new perspectives on their profession as teachers.

Further Insights

Obstacles Present Training Opportunities

International teachers' experiences also create opportunities for analyzing and developing specific training for future international teachers. Shatz observes that some of the difficulties or obstacles of international teaching require that teachers "reconsider and modify course content, instructional strategies, and pedagogical beliefs." Some of the obstacles that Shatz briefly mentions are "cultural shock, limited resources, language and communication barriers, and classroom cultural differences" (2000, p. 141). Once again, international teachers tend to point out the same observations, in this case many of the same obstacles or difficulties, and this indicates that there are specific areas where teachers could be better trained and prepared for teaching in an international environment.

Related to this, Rothwell (2005) observes that there are four general areas in which international teachers need preparation and training so as to be competent and prepared for an international setting:

• Recognised academic competence (which is up to date).
• Operational competence as a teacher of adults.
• A transformatory and democratic approach to education.
• An ethnographic approach to peoples and cultures (p. 315).

Rothwell also notes that an "ethnographic approach" means the teacher should seek the students' thoughts "as a source of information to help to improve local contextualisation," which should help the international teacher "avoid the dangers of 'intellectual imperialism'" (2005, p. 315). The term "intellectual imperialism" is, in various guises, essentially an inherent cultural blindness from having been socialized and trained in one's own specific culture. This tendency to think in a specific mode and pattern is one of the critical areas for international teachers to be prepared. Other international teachers refer to this same inability to see outside one's own culture as "ethnocentrism", though "intellectual imperialism" more specifically points out the propensity to do this through academics. For example, American textbooks are distinctly "American," in that an American point of view is often presented with primacy over points of view outside the U.S. This can put even well-educated Americans at a disadvantage, since the educated citizens of other nations often see clearly the American point of view even as they have their own points of view. Thus, foreigners can often see "in" to America, but Americans cannot see "out." This concept also relates back to the other side of international teaching, which is the idea of creating within America's high school and college classrooms a stronger awareness, appreciation, understanding and respect for the many nations and cultures beyond America's borders. In other words, bringing an international teaching viewpoint into America's classrooms could help Americans to operate more effectively in the current era of globalization.

Rothwell points out some areas where international teachers may be culturally unaware; situations where the teacher should endeavor to recognize cultural differences. Rothwell's examples include an understanding about when to give gifts, what to give as a gift, standard rules about social relationships, rules about time, the way meetings are conducted and norms of punctuality. These examples are simply the most obvious outward manifestations of cultural differences, which make a good starting point for discovery, but cultural differences are often much more subtle. Rothwell cites other experts who insist that "intercultural social skills training" should be a central part of "cultural sensitisation." The reason experts emphasize a need for "cultural sensitisation" is that such training helps prevent a teacher's "insensitive communication of values and assumptions" which may be accepted and valued in Western Europe or the U.S., but may not be accepted or valued in other parts of the world. He gets to the heart of international teacher training when he writes, "perhaps what we need is a succinct model of good university teaching which powerfully conveys the main requirements for good teaching virtually anywhere and which includes a built-in respect for diversity and otherness" (2005, p. 316).

Recommendations for International Teacher Training

Sanders and Stewart make an important observation about universities in relation to international teachers. They note that out of the top 50 U.S. colleges and universities that train teachers, "only a handful require any coursework in non-Western history for their students preparing to teach history" (2004, p. 201). If these universities do not take an international perspective on basic fields such as history, then of course they offer even less in terms of training teachers for teaching internationally. Auger and Overby's experiences in China should be considered in American universities so as to develop courses specifically designed for international teaching:

Auger and Overby also write that Chinese students usually wait to hear the professor give them "the" answer rather than examine the validity of competing views or synthesize opinions and views so as to give their own original analyses (2005, p. 240). International teachers would do well to be aware of such cultural differences before they teach a group of Chinese students, as such knowledge about the traditions and culture of Chinese education would help them to prepare for the classroom experience.

Zafar (2006) makes similar and relevant observations about Pakistan; observations that should be incorporated into courses or training for international teachers. Zafar writes that the Pakistani educational system "is overly skewed in favor of rote learning" and the author advises that "strategies have to be spelt out as how to internalize values of rational thinking, spirit of inquiry…" (p. 65). If the students of an entire nation have been culturally trained — since the beginning of their education — to never contradict or oppose a teacher, or if students have been trained only through rote memorization, then an international teacher needs to know this in order to teach more effectively.

Also, each field of knowledge may have specific factors that international teachers need to understand. For example, Auger and Overby (2005) point out that "social science as studied in the West does not really exist in China" (p. 237). Of course, international teachers of social studies may not understand what Auger and Overby mean until they actually enter the classroom; but they could be prepared for the experience so that their teaching is more effective for the students. They explain that in China, "few faculty or students are familiar with social science methodologies, but more importantly, the spirit of inquiry and challenge that underlies Western conceptions of social science is not encouraged in Chinese universities" (p. 237). If an international teacher is aware of this difference, then of course he or she can concentrate on demonstrating how and why the spirit of inquiry is vital to social studies as practiced in American universities. The teacher might more quickly uncover ways that the Chinese conception of social studies is valuable, or the teacher may find ways to incorporate a Chinese perspective into the course content so as to give the lesson "localization". This approach also relates to avoiding "intellectual imperialism."

There are many other important factors that should be included in a course that trains international teachers. One central factor is that English is often not the first language of the students whom the teacher will meet in the classroom. What effect or difference might this make for the course content? As Auger and Overby discovered from their own teaching, the English skills of students in the same classroom can vary greatly. The authors discovered that very few of their students approached fluency in English, and also "a small but significant group (perhaps 10-15% in our year) have great difficulty understanding conversational English, much less academic prose" (p. 238). They point out that even the students who do have good English skills are not accustomed to reading "large quantities of Western scholarship." The students read quite slowly and spend a lot of time looking up unfamiliar words. They conclude that "this sharply limited the amount of reading they could effectively assimilate in any given period of time" (Auger & Overby, 2005, p. 238). First-time international teachers may inadvertently assign far too much reading for the students, who will then think the course is much too difficult, and may give up on learning the material. Thus, part of international teacher training should be imparting the diagnostic tools to make an accurate estimation of each student's ability in oral and written English.

Cultural Awareness & Acclimatization

Rothwell offers a list of items that should also be included in training courses for international teachers. Just as Auger and Overby point out, one of Rothwell's components of international teacher training is "being realistic about how much can be achieved in a single session where the student's first language is not English, while avoiding simultaneous translation of the class" (2005, p. 320). Related to this, the author also writes that teachers must train in effective time management, particularly so as to give students class breaks because "listening to teaching in English for two hours or more can be a strain even for those competent in the language" (p. 320). Also related to this, Rothwell writes that teachers should be trained so that they are alert to uncover "different conventions of classroom behaviour, attendance and punctuality" (p. 320).

Another important area of preparation is to understand as many details as possible about the country of destination. Rothwell describes this as "country intelligence," meaning the specific political, economic and social factors occurring within a country. He gives various examples such as knowing interest and inflation rates, knowing the social makeup of a society, such as sectarian, ethnic or religious groups that may be in conflict — and that may be represented in the student makeup of a classroom. Other areas of "country intelligence" include knowing the health and medical infrastructures and systems of a country, or knowing "exit procedures in the event of a contingency arising" (p. 320).

Training should also focus on common experiences in adjusting to a new country, including "acclimatisation on arrival and the need to build working relationships with host country staff and students"(Rothwell, 2005, p. 320). Several of the items that Rothwell lists actually belong under the general category of adjusting personally to the culture and successfully assimilating socially and professionally into the school system. Auger and Overby discuss the difficulties they experienced in bridging the local and foreign faculty members. They note that such assimilation "proved to be a daunting task, due to both language difficulties and differences in academic approaches" (2005, p. 243). Relating to this, some of Rothwell's bulleted points for teacher training are:

• The crucial role of a selection process which emphasises cultural sensitivity, flexibility, the ability to work collaboratively and resilience.
• Recognising differences in value systems such as work commitment and attachment, power distance and their impact on behavioural conventions.
• The importance of team building, especially where new colleagues are being brought on board (Rothwell, 2005, p. 320).

Thus, international teachers should be trained such that they have a higher likelihood of successfully bridging a school's social, cultural and professional gaps. Many experts also point to another general area centered on the classroom environment and effective course curricula. This category of training also relates to some of the ideas previously discussed, wherein authors have pointed out specific cultural traditions. For example, the inclination to rely heavily on rote learning, or the tendency for strong deference to the authority of the teacher will affect the classroom environment and also what should be offered as course content. Some of Rothwell's points regarding this are:

• Recognising student expectations of lecturer's role and inputs — the didactic — interactive mix, and the 'distinctiveness' that a visiting lecturer can bring to the student's experience.
• In some countries being aware of 'face' issues — will students admit to struggling with a topic?
• The preparation of high-quality teaching and learning materials that allow for flexibility within sessions, avoid overlaps between modules and are translated as accurately as possible into the student's language where required.
• Classes that are explicitly related to the learning outcomes for the module so that students can directly see the relevance of content covered.
• Recognising the potential for development of case study materials appropriate to the local context (Rothwell, 2005, p. 320).

Viewpoints

Bringing International Teaching Home

Shatz (2000) makes a strong point about the value of teaching abroad — not the value for the teacher, but the value for the teacher's own nation and society. As Shatz puts it, "I also gained a greater appreciation for cultural diversity and the power of cultural influences. For the traditional classroom, I now fully recognize the importance of helping students change their ethnocentric orientation and construct a more global view of psychology and life" (2000, p. 141). When an international teacher returns to the traditional American classroom, he or she becomes much more aware that American students are not being exposed to an international perspective in education. Sanders and Stewart write about this same issue:

Sanders and Stewart analyzed the educational system in the U.S., and came to the conclusion that American student knowledge about the rest of the world is relatively poor. Additionally, they point out that "most teachers are not being prepared to help students close the international knowledge gap" (2004, p. 201). However, the authors argue that making American education more like international education will take the organizational effort of federal and state governments. The write, "…as a nation, we have not yet made developing international knowledge and skills a significant policy priority, nor have we built the capacity needed to get high-quality international teaching and learning into our nation's classrooms" (p. 201). This is the side of international teacher training that would benefit all of American society.

Zafar notes that in Pakistan, the international schools are quite superior to the schools that comprise Pakistan's national system of education. The international schools are "up to date and more practical in approach, whereas the Pakistani system of education is far behind the quality education system, it needs many amendments to reach the standards of the international education system" (Zafar, 2006, p. 66). A good question is whether the American national education system likewise needs amendments in order to reach the standards and quality of international education. Sanders and Stewart argue that indeed, the American education system does need significant amendments. According to studies that the authors cite, U.S. students are quite behind the students of other countries in their knowledge of geography and current affairs. For example, the great majority of American students (83%) "could not find Afghanistan or Israel on a world map, but knew that the island featured in last season's TV show 'Survivor' was in the South Pacific" (p. 201). Though the authors admit that such statistics are "obviously simple indicators", research nevertheless demonstrates that American students have relatively little knowledge of the world, and American students would benefit from the environment usually found in international schools (Sanders & Stewart, 2004, p. 201).

Sanders and Stewart assert that U.S. schools generally contain "instructional insularity from the world," and make the argument that during this era of globalization, America is at a significant disadvantage to remain culturally isolated and largely out of contact with the rest of the world. This is why Sanders and Stewart conclude, "if we are to make knowledge of other world regions, other cultures, and international affairs available on a wider scale and to all our students, we will need state and national policies to support the effort" (2004, p. 202). Thus, international teacher training is not just about the benefits that teachers experience by teaching abroad. Their experiences and understanding of the world could be brought home and given to American students, as a matter of national and state educational policy.

Terms & Concepts

Culture Shock: The trauma a person may experience from moving into a culture different from a home or original culture. Part of culture shock may be frustration from a lack of understanding brought about by verbal and nonverbal communication in the new culture, or by customs and values that conflict with the person's home culture.

Ethnocentrism: An inherent and unquestioned belief that one's own group or culture is superior to all others. Ethnocentric people view outside groups or cultures from the perspective of their own culture, and therefore judge other cultures as good or bad depending on whether they agree or disagree with their own culture. Thus, if a person considers the traditions or customs of another culture as ridiculous and silly, then that person may be exhibiting an ethnocentric point of view.

Ethnographic Approach: The use of "informants" to gather helpful information for understanding a culture from the inside. In terms of teaching internationally, an ethnographic approach means the teacher discovers and uses students' ideas and ways of thinking so as to give a course a more local context.

Intellectual Imperialism: The tendency to extend the viewpoints and biases of one's nation or culture through an academic profession. Imperialism is the practice of extending the power and dominion of a nation through territorial acquisitions or by gaining indirect control over the political or economic life of another nation; intellectual imperialism is exerting control over the educational life of a nation.

International School: A school that adopts a more international curriculum and most often holds all its courses in English, though there are international schools that use French, German or other languages. International schools often have students whose parents are foreigners in the country where they live. They often work for international businesses, organizations, embassies, or other institutions from abroad. However, local students also attend for higher quality education, or to improve their language skills. International schools are usually private, but public international schools also exist.

Bibliography

Auger, V. & Overby, L. M. (2005). Teaching and learning in Nanjing: Community, communities, and politics in an overseas program. Journal of Political Science Education, 1, 233-247. Retrieved August 4, 2009 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=17539790&site=ehost-live

Broman, F. (2007). International teaching opportunities abound. International Educator, 21, 1. Retrieved August 4, 2009 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24359701&site=ehost-live

Crabtree, R.D. (2013). The Intended and Unintended Consequences of International Service-Learning. Journal Of Higher Education Outreach & Engagement, 17, 43-66. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88905258&site=ehost-live

Melek, J. (2008). Explaining why I had to go overseas to teach. International Educator, 23, 10. Retrieved August 4, 2009 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=34720484&site=ehost-live

Roberts, B. (2012). Reflection on what is implied by 'international' with reference to international education and international schools. International Schools Journal, 31, 69-76. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=83231317&site=ehost-live

Rothwell, A. (2005). Think global, teach local. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 42, 313-323. Retrieved August 4, 2009 from the EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=18486265&site=ehost-live

Sanders, T. & Stewart, V. (2004). International education: From community innovation to national policy. Phi Delta Kappan,; 86, 200-205. Retrieved August 5, 2009 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=15014945&site=ehost-live

Savva, M. (2013). International schools as gateways to the intercultural development of North-American teachers. Journal of Research in International Education, 12, 214-227. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=92726874&site=ehost-live

Shatz, M. (2000). Teaching psychology in Hong Kong: Pedagogical challenges, instructional solutions, and lessons. Teaching of Psychology, 27, 140-141. Retrieved August 4, 2009 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=3348762&site=ehost-live

The benefits of international teaching. (2009). International Educator, 23, 8. Retrieved August 4, 2009 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=38709942&site=ehost-live

Wigford, A. (2007). New research spotlights international teaching. International Educator, 21, 2. Retrieved August 5, 2009 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24359705&site=ehost-live

Zafar, A. (2006). Traditional and modern approaches in ESL teaching at different levels in Pakistan. International Journal of Learning, 13, 61-66. Retrieved August 5, 2009 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24978672&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Bresnahan, M. & Min Sun, K. (1993). The impact of positive and negative messagesw on change in attitude toward international teaching assistants. Folia Linguistica, 27(3/4), 347-363. Retrieved August 4, 2009 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=14361355&site=ehost-live

Cort, K., Das, J. & Synn, W. (2004). Cross functional globalization modules: A learning experience. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 15, 77-97. Retrieved August 5, 2009 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=15744232&site=ehost-live

Chiang, S. & Mi, H. (2008). Reformulation as a strategy for managing "understanding uncertainty" in office hour interactions between international teaching assistants and American college students. Intercultural Education, 19, 269-281. Retrieved August 5, 2009 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=32744176&site=ehost-live

Solem, M. (2002). The online center for global geography education. International Research in Geographical & Environmental Education, 11, 295-299. Retrieved August 4, 2009 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=11287807&site=ehost-live