Transition Planning

For effective transition planning to take place, the difficulties faced by all children in transition must be understood. These difficulties arise from differences between home, daycare, intervention, preschool, and kindergarten environments. At home and in intervention programs, accommodations are made for the child's needs, but in preschool, and more in kindergarten, children must learn to conform to the school's expectations. Children with disabilities may find transitions especially difficult. Federal law provides parents of children with disabilities with Individualized Family Service Plans and Individualized Education Plans to aid their children's transitions.

Keywords Categorical Disability; Early Intervention; Individualized Education Plan (IEP); Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP); Noncategorical Disability; Preschool; Service Coordination; Special Education Services; Transition Planning

Overview

The word "transition," as used by experts in early childhood development, refers to different kinds of external changes that can occur during the early years of a child's life. Some transitions - such as the brief change from one activity to another in a preschool classroom - are relatively insignificant to a child's overall development. But other transitions - such as the one from preschool to kindergarten - have lasting impact (Lombardi, 1992). If these kinds of major transitions do not go smoothly or are mishandled by parents, teachers or caregivers, they can have a lasting negative effect on the child. Transition planning, therefore, refers to steps taken by adults to ensure that major periods of change during early childhood go smoothly.

This article examines the most significant transitional periods in the lives of children in two categories - those with learning and physical disabilities, and those without disabilities - and makes suggestions on how to ease and facilitate these times for both groups. The three transitional periods that will be examined in children with disabilities occur between infancy and 6 years of age. The first stage, entrance into an early intervention program, happens shortly after birth. The second, progression from early intervention into a preschool class or program, happens at 3 years. The third, progression from preschool into kindergarten, occurs between ages 5 and 6. The three significant transitions in the lives of children without disabilities are: home-rearing to childcare (between infancy and 3 years); entrance into preschool programs (around age 3); and starting kindergarten (age 5 or 6).

Public Laws 94-142 & 99-457

Of the two groups of children examined here, those with disabilities have, in recent years, seen the most reform and legislation enacted on their behalf. In 1975, Congress passed Public Law (PL) 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. Until then, the quality and continuity of education offered to preschool and elementary school disabled children differed from state to state. PL 94-142 put an end to this inconsistency by requiring all states to provide disabled students with an appropriate education, free of charge. The act also guaranteed that disabled students would be educated in the "least restrictive environment" (Sack, 2000), which could mean (to students with milder disabilities) taking instruction in classrooms with regular education students (Chandler, Fowler, Hadden, & Stahurski, 2003). The result was increased continuity in intervention programs, preschool, and kindergarten for children with disabilities, and easier transitions between each.

Today, PL 94-142 is known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Because of IDEA's least restrictive environment clause, parents of disabled children have the option of choosing - depending on the extent and severity of their child's disability - preschool programs in which at least some of their classmates do not have disabilities. This means that a child can enroll in a regular education public school that also offers special education preschool classes (a way in which many states are meeting the least restrictive environment requirement). Children can also participate in the federal early intervention program, Head Start, in states that provide special education services within the program. And there are private preschools that enroll both regular education and special needs children (Chandler et al., 2003).

In 1986, Congress amended PL 97-142 by passing PL 99-457 (the Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments). While the IDEA originally applied to children age 3 and older in public schools, PL 99-457 extended coverage to younger children in early intervention programs. PL 99-457 gave money to states to establish multidisciplinary intervention systems for children under the age of 3 diagnosed with developmental delays (Black, 1991) or who were deemed "at-risk" for developmental delays. Children deemed at-risk had been exposed to certain early developmental risk factors (such as premature birth) but who had not yet been formally diagnosed with a disability. PL 99-457 greatly increased the number of children eligible for services, though the federal government left final determination of eligibility to individual states (Florian, 1995). The act increased continuity in early intervention programs and eased the transition to preschool for children with disabilities.

Transition Difficulties

For effective transition planning to take place, the difficulties faced by all children in transition must be understood. These difficulties arise from differences between home, daycare, intervention, preschool, and kindergarten environments. Children who are used to being at home are accustomed to a warm, one-on-one relationship with adults. This changes when they move from home care to early intervention and preschool and are placed in groups of children, and most significantly when they enter kindergarten, where their relationship with adult teachers becomes more impersonal and formal. At home and in intervention programs, accommodations are made for the child's needs, but in preschool, and more in kindergarten, children must learn to conform to the school's expectations. Teaching and learning styles also change, most significantly after a child leaves preschool. Kindergartners must go from years of learning with objects and manipulatives to using words and symbols (Myers, 1997).

The adjustment from preschool to kindergarten is, for most children, the most difficult. For many, it means switching from a discovery-through-play learning model used in many preschool programs to more formal learning styles like the ones used in later grades. Classrooms become less freeform and children are expected to sit, listen, and follow rules. Teaching styles change, too. Students are asked to switch from the primarily verbal and rote instruction styles they were shown in preschool to more formal, literacy-based methodology. Many children from minority families must quickly pick up a second language - often without help - and assimilate a school culture that is dictated by the dominant ethnic group. Some children have no brothers and sisters and have never participated in early intervention or preschool programs, and so must go straight from home to kindergarten. Having little experience in peer interaction, they struggle to develop social skills (Myers, 1997).

Applications

Elements of Effective Transitions

Despite the complexities faced by all young children when going from one learning environment to the next, it has been found that sound transition planning hinges on just a few basic principles. Studies dating back to the 1960s have revealed that smooth transitions are less dependent on efforts to bridge the different stages than they are on ensuring that certain elements are present during each stage. These three elements are:

• Developmentally appropriate education,

• Parental involvement, and

• Support services (Lombardi, 1992).

Developmentally Appropriate Education

The first element, developmentally appropriate education, applies to a number of areas in which young children should be encouraged to grow: cognitive and motor functioning, attention span and focus, social skills and cooperative play, interest in things outside their immediate environment. Between early childhood and elementary school, a child's mind grows by exploring and discovering its world and through interacting with peers and adults. Teaching at this time should encourage natural curiosity and a love of learning and offer experiences that expand on earlier experiences. Rather than design activities around play or academic subjects, educators should craft lessons that build language, math, and reasoning skills through exploration and cooperative problem solving (Lombardi, 1992).

Parental Involvement

According to Lombardi, another facet that is sorely lacking in some programs is parental involvement. Parents should not be seen only at drop-off and pick-up times. Successful schools and programs keep an open line of communication between parents and teachers and encourage classroom observation, volunteerism, and involvement in policymaking. Family diversity should also be embraced, with teachers and administrators welcoming not only parents from different cultures, but also single, teenage, and remarried parents (Lombardi, 1992).

Support Services

Finally, Lombardi cautions that schools and programs have further to go in providing services to children from disadvantaged families in need of child care support, health care services and, in the case of immigrant families, language support. Bolstered in recent years by increased federal funding and initiatives, public education is working more than ever with social service agencies, community-based groups, and health care providers to provide comprehensive family services and must continue on this trajectory. Support services that strengthen bonds between families and schools do more than ensure smooth transitioning and eventual academic success. They build strong, unified communities (Lombardi, 1992).

Further Insights

In addition to transitional challenges endured by all children, students with disabilities and their families must contend with another set of obstacles. These hurdles only begin with physical and cognitive limitations stemming from disabilities. Laws, such as IDEA and PL 99-457, passed as many as 30 years ago, continue to change the landscape of special education. Families today must stay abreast of the public school special education system. By the time their son or daughter turns 5, parents will have worked with two different teams of specialists to craft two entirely different kinds of education plans for that child. And the smoothness of transition from preschool to kindergarten depends greatly on the ease of changing from the first type of education plan to the second.

Early Intervention Programs & the Individualized Family Service Plan

The first type of plan is the Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP), which guides children, 3 and under, through early intervention programs and preschool. The IFSP and its family-centered approach is one of the true innovations brought forth by PL 99-457 (Florian, 1995). First, a multidisciplinary team of specialists - usually mental and physical health professionals - conducts formal and informal evaluations inside and outside the home to gauge the child's social, emotional functioning and interaction with parents (Helton, 1994). Afterward, the team drafts an education and support services plan based on their assessments and on the family's goals for the child (Bryan & Wirth, 1995).

The IFSP details the child's personal attributes, including cognitive functioning and growth, communication skills, and physical and emotional development. It spells out family concerns and objectives and gives a realistic timeline for reaching these objectives. Finally, it lists the types of special education services needed and where, when, and how they will be administered. Also given is the name of a services coordinator (Bruder, 2000). Services might include physical, speech or occupational therapy. Some children need an assistant - either an adult or a regular education classmate - in class. Others need modified textbooks, learning materials, or adaptive technology (e.g. special computer key pads or hearing aids). Some public preschools provide adequate services and supports. When this is not the case, parents sometimes turn to private preschools (Chandler, et al., 2003).

In addition to private preschools, many communities offer private daycare centers, university- and college-based childcare, and family daycare (small childcare businesses run in private homes). Most of these programs cannot offer the same services as a public school-based preschool program, but it is possible in some cases to request services from the state. Availability of visiting services to children not enrolled in a public school-based preschool program is at the discretion of the local public school district. In one district, for example, a child enrolled in a Head Start preschool program might be visited at the program regularly by a state-provided physical therapist. Some school districts will provide visiting services to any child in any type of preschool setting, while others place restrictions on where these services can be obtained (Chandler et al., 2003).

Shortly before a child turns 3 and leaves an early intervention program, a clear transition plan for the switch to preschool is added to the IFSP. The plan details how services will continue to be provided in the new learning environment and how the IFSP will be phased out and the next plan phased in (Bruder, 2000). Law 99-457 says that no more than three months before a child's third birthday and the beginning of his IEP, the IFSP must list and describe three important steps toward transitioning and how they will be executed. First, parents must be informed about and, when necessary, trained for their child's transition. Second, steps must be taken to prepare the child to function in her new learning environment. And finally, a plan must be laid out for supplying the new program with the child's file from the previous program. This file can include previous assessments, evaluations, old and revised IFSPs, and other pertinent information, all of which can be released only upon written permission from the parents. In the end, the child should move from the early intervention program into the preschool program without any difficulties or interruption of services. To ease this transition, some children may continue for a time under both the old IFSP and the new plan (Chandler et al., 2003).

Entering Preschool & the Individualized Education Plan

Upon entering preschool, children with disabilities move away from the IFSP and into an Individualized Education Plan (IEP). Like the IFSP, the IEP states learning objectives and a timeline for their attainment and lists needed support services and how they will be given. But unlike the IFSP, which focuses on family, the IEP is child-focused (Chandler et al., 2003). In addition to being more child-focused, the IEP differs from the IFSP in other ways. For instance, the IFSP is designed for regular, everyday learning in the home, community, or in daycare; the IEP is designed for a more academic milieu, such as the classroom (Bruder, 2000).

Parents may find at this stage that they are less involved in designing their child's education plan. Further, many find themselves thrust into the role of service coordinator. Service coordination was handled under federal provisions by a service coordinator while the child was in an early intervention program. But the federal government does not provide service coordination for children in public education preschools, which are state-run. Parents are entitled to information and training on their new responsibilities and on available services before the transition to preschool occurs, and are also entitled to training and information on their child's program when he enters preschool (Chandler et al., 2003).

The time a child enters preschool can also vary in different states. Some states move children out of early intervention and into preschool the day they turn 3. Other states have children finish the school year in early intervention and start preschool either in the summer or fall. Other differences between early intervention programs and preschool programs have nothing to do with federal or state law. Instead, they are unique to communities and families. Some preschools place regular and special education children in inclusive classrooms; others offer instruction to both groups, but in separate classrooms. Some communities move 3-year-olds from home-based intervention programs to center-based preschools; other communities provide both center-based early intervention and center-based preschools. Communities may or may not offer home visits and assistance to parents (Chandler et al., 2003).

Categorical & Noncategorical Disabilities

In some states parents must have their child reevaluated at age 3 to determine if she is eligible for public school special education services. Under Public Law 99-457, states can apply either a "noncategorical" or federally specified "categorical" label to a child's disability. Initially, all children under age 3 who are given the noncategorical label, "developmental delay" or who are deemed at risk are eligible for early intervention special education services. But in some states, 3-year-olds entering preschool are eligible for special education services only if given categorical labels such as "visually impaired," "hearing impaired," or "mentally retarded." In these states, preschool-bound 3-year-olds with noncategorical designations must be reevaluated and given a categorical label. In other states, however, children with noncategorical labels remain eligible. No evaluations can be done without parental consent (Chandler et al., 2003).

Viewpoints

Inclusions Classes

As a result of the IDEA's least restrictive environment clause, increasing numbers of students with disabilities are taking instruction in regular education classrooms alongside students without disabilities. Within each disabled student's IEP are detailed guidelines on what modifications must be made to a lesson to help the student, what adaptive materials and technology are needed, and whether the student needs an assistant to help him. A well-designed IEP should, if properly meshed with the child's previous ISFP, ease transition from early intervention into preschool and, once the child enters preschool, ease his transition into regular education environments.

Studies done in the late 1990s revealed that while many teachers and principals approved of the concept of inclusion classes and IEPs, fewer embraced it in actual practice. Educators cited extra time needed to devise inclusive lessons and difficulties running a classroom of both disabled and non-disabled pupils. Others bemoaned increased paperwork and planning time without increased pay. A number of both regular and special education teachers also expressed dismay over additional training needed to run inclusion classrooms and over time spent in cross-collaboration (Lee-Tarver, 2006).

A more recent study has produced some encouraging results. In 2006, 123 regular education elementary school teachers in Georgia and Alabama were asked about their attitudes toward inclusion teaching and IEPs. It was discovered that the majority of these teachers believed IEPs to be useful planning and goal setting tools for children with disabilities. Most said that they took active part in designing student IEPs and that IEPs actually help with planning lessons. In the end, the consensus was that IEPs are effective, justified and enlightening when done collaboratively by regular and special education teachers (Lee-Tarver, 2006).

Terms & Concepts

Categorical Disability: Any of a number of federally designated handicaps (e.g. visually impaired, mentally retarded) that entitle a child to special education services.

Early Intervention: A program for preschool-age children targeting those students who are developmentally disabled or at-risk for a development disability.

Individualized Education Plan (IEP): A tailor-made, child-focused plan for children with disabilities, 3 years and older, designed by a team of specialists and detailing the scope of a child's disabilities, special education services needed, and educational and developmental goals and objectives for the child.

Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP): A tailor-made, family-focused plan for children with disabilities under 3 years of age, that is designed by a team of specialists and a child's parents and details the scope of a child's disabilities, special education services needed, and educational and developmental goals and objectives.

Noncategorical Disability: A designation given to children deemed developmentally disabled or at risk for developmental disability, but who have not been labeled with a categorical disability.

Preschool: Any program for children, ages 3 to 5, that prepares them academically, emotionally, and socially for kindergarten.

Special Education Services: Additional care and support required by children with disabilities that can come in forms such as physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy.

Transition Planning: Steps taken by adults to ensure that major periods of change during a child's early childhood years go smoothly.

Bibliography

Black, M. M. (1991). Early intervention services for infants and toddlers: A focus on families. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 20 , 51-57. Retrieved May 3, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=6392882&site=ehost-live

Bruder, M. B. (2000). The individual family service plan (IFSP). Retrieved May 1, 2007, from ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education http://www.hoagiesgifted.org/eric/e605.html

Chandler, L. K., Fowler, S. A., Hadden, S., & Stahurski, L. (2003). Planning your child's transition to preschool: A step-by-step guide for families. Retrieved May 2, 2007, from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign's Family and Child Transitions into Least Restrictive Environments http://facts.crc.uiuc.edu/facts4/facts4.html#Family_Involvement

Florian, L. (1995). Part H early intervention program: Legislative history and intent of the law. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 15 , 247-62. Retrieved May 4, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9510161962&site=ehost-live

Helton, L. R. (1994). Strengthening efforts for a family systems approach in early intervention with disabled infants and toddlers. Social Work in Education, 16 , 241-250. Retrieved May 2, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9606216667&site=ehost-live

Landmark, L., Roberts, E. L., & Zhang, D. (2013). Educators’ beliefs and practices about parent involvement in transition planning. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 36, 114-123. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88902132&site=ehost-live

Lee-Tarver, A. (2006). Are individualized education plans a good thing? A survey of teachers' perceptions of the utility of IEPs in regular education settings. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 33 , 263-272. Retrieved May 7, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=23508200&site=ehost-live

Lombardi, J. (1992). Beyond transition: Ensuring continuity in early childhood services. Retrieved May 1, 2007, from the Clearinghouse on Early Education and Parenting http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/1992/lombar92.html

Mattson Bryan, A. A. & Wirth, D. L. (1995). Birth to three early intervention: Nursing's role on the interdisciplinary team. Journal of Community Health Nursing, 12 , 73-88. Retrieved May 1, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=7444376&site=ehost-live

Myers, R. G. (1997). Removing roadblocks to success: Transitions and linkages between home, preschool and primary school. Retrieved May 2, 2007, from the Consultative Group on Early Childhood Care and Development http://www.ecdgroup.com/download/cc121ari.pdf

Plotner, A., Trach, J., & Shogren, K. (2012). Identifying a transition competency domain structure: Assisting transition planning teams to understand roles and responsibilities of community partners. Rehabilitation Research, Policy & Education, 26(2/3), 255-270. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=85506272&site=ehost-live

Sack, J. L. (2000, November 29). IDEA opens doors, fans controversy. Education Week 20 , 1-6. Retrieved April 19, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=3967634&site=ehost-live

Small, N., Raghavan, R., & Pawson, N. (2013). An ecological approach to seeking and utilising the views of young people with intellectual disabilities in transition planning. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities, 17, 283-300. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=92721483&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Cory, R. G. (1973). Transition education. Education, 93 , 214-216. Retrieved May 7, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=4708394&site=ehost-live

Giunta, S. A. (2005) IEP parties: Preparing families for the difficult task ahead. Counseling Today, 48 , 41-42. Retrieved May 5, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18203035&site=ehost-live

Kohler, P. D. & Field, S. (2003). Transition-focused education: Foundation for the future. Journal of Special Education, 37 , 174-183. Retrieved May 6, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=11343876&site=ehost-live

Zhang, C. & Bennett, T. (2003). Facilitating the meaningful participation of culturally and linguistically diverse families in the IFSP and IEP process. Focus on Autism & Other Developmental Disabilities, 18 , 51-58. Retrieved May 6, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9189565&site=ehost-live