U.S. Educational Indicators

Public education remains a central issue for American society. Federal, state, and local governments, charged with the responsibility of ensuring that public school students succeed in their coursework, have endeavored to establish benchmarks by which they may monitor student progress. These indicators focus on several areas: quality of student life, student backgrounds, teacher qualifications, and, of course, student performance. This paper takes an in-depth look at each of these indicators and how they are used to both paint an accurate illustration of the state of public schools and prompt change where needed.

Keywords Demographics; Educational Indicators; Education Reform; K-12; Standardized Testing

Overview

In the late eighteenth century, American public schools were a dreadful sight. Students only attended classes for a few weeks during the winter months, due to the cold. Their teachers were untrained and inexperienced, and the facilities were substandard at best. In Massachusetts, one man (who himself came from a childhood of poverty and school disrepair) took it upon himself to improve public schools. Horace Mann, the State Senate President, became exasperated with school conditions and resigned his post in order to head a new state Board of Education to address the issues affecting those institutions. Mann's efforts included extending the school year, providing adequate teacher training, supplying students with the proper books and working to renovate and improve school structures. In essence, Mann was establishing a series of educational indicators by which school improvements could transpire (PBS Roundtable, 2001).

Mann's crusading ways on behalf of the Massachusetts public school system served as an inspiration for other school systems to take similar steps. Since that early phase in the history of American public schools, Mann's work continues as a work in progress. There remain countless school buildings in states of disrepair, issues concerning adequately trained staff, classroom size and an overall desire to improve upon the way Americans educate their children using taxpayer dollars.

The twenty-first century is an era in which the most complex technologies in human history are central elements in virtually any of life's activities; a strong educational background is paramount for an individual's success. Modern society demands advanced training not only in these technologies, but in the most basic skills as well. Among these capabilities are writing, reading, analysis, and computation. Each of these basic proficiencies are developed and honed not just at a secondary school level, but at every level prior to and beyond the high school years.

Of course, one's education is not just useful for his or her own personal development. In fact, an educated population is essential to a local, regional, and national economy as well. A trained, well-schooled workforce is both a powerful attribute for existing employers and an enticing incentive for relocating companies. In short, an educated workforce in no small part contributes to the establishment of a competitive, successful economy.

It comes as no surprise, therefore, that political leaders consider education a top issue, one that is always salient and can never be overemphasized. In the hotly contested presidential election of 2000, at center stage was the fact that voters felt that the nation's educational system was treated with a sort of laissez-faire approach — that fundamentally, American public schools were sound and that any problems they experienced would eventually be corrected with minimal government intervention. Some observers believe that this attitude was a major factor in propelling George W. Bush into the White House during that crucial election, as his call for attention to failing public schools echoed the views of Horace Mann, whereas Democrats, who had enjoyed the presidency for two terms prior, seemed ineffectual at addressing the issues facing American schools (Winston, 2008).

Indeed, public education remains a central issue for American society. Federal, state, and local governments, charged with the responsibility of ensuring that public school students succeed in their coursework, have endeavored to establish benchmarks by which they may monitor student progress. These indicators focus on several areas: quality of student life, student backgrounds, teacher qualifications, and, of course, student performance. This paper takes an in-depth look at each of these indicators and how they are used to both paint an accurate illustration of the state of public schools and prompt change where needed.

Quality of Student Life

As was the case with Horace Mann in the eighteenth century, the first place leaders look when attempting to assess school performance is the institution itself. First, enduring stories from across the country of antiquated schools with asbestos in the walls, bacteria-laden ventilation systems, broken heat and air-conditioning systems, leaking roofs, and poor lighting stimulate loud calls to action not only by parents of enrolled students but from political leaders and others as well. Indeed, the physical state of public education institutions is just as important an indicator of a system's performance as the student bodies within their walls.

Facility Conditions

In 2000, the General Accounting Office (GAO) released the results of a study that estimated that as much as $112 billion was needed to fully repair deteriorating public schools. This figure was twice as much as the GAO estimated was needed only five years prior. That impressive number was even called into question by the National Education Association, which more than doubled the GAO's estimate to $254 billion. Adding to this issue is the fact that district leaders, municipal and even state governments would likely never be able to raise and distribute the funds their school systems need to avoid posing health risks and otherwise dampening student performance (Agron, 2000).

Classroom Size

The quality of student life as an important factor to take into consideration is by no means localized entirely to repairs to the building, either. How many students are in each classroom is also an important indicator for determining public school performance. In the last few years, studies of a variety of public school systems took a critical look at the effects of programs designed to reduce classroom size. Although the systems in question were very different in composition and geography, the results were very similar. Most of these analyses reported that reduced classroom size-oriented efforts led to greater parental involvement, helped reduce instances of misbehavior and violence and fostered a renewed pleasure in classroom learning among students, all of which lead to improved student performance (Myers, 2000).

Financial & Political Implications

The fact that the physical state of schools and the number of students in a classroom are considered critical indicators of a school system's overall performance gives rise to political focus on each of these issues. As mentioned earlier, federal government estimates reveal hundreds of billions of dollars would be needed to meet the needs of the multitude of deteriorating schools. While the figures themselves are subject to debate, there is no doubt that leaky pipes, poor ventilation and lighting, the presence of asbestos, and other problems are perceived to weigh heavily on the minds of those who track school performance, even if the means to solve the problems (namely costs) are elusive.

The same point can be raised on classroom size. Clearly, to address the concern of overcrowded classrooms, money must be spent to hire more teachers. The issue is indeed a salient one, and the policy response is clear: more teachers and classroom space is necessary to address a growing student population. However, while the solution is clear, the size of its cost is unanticipated and likely cannot be implemented without gobbling up budgets at the same time (Moore, 2006).

Without a doubt, the comfort a student feels while in school is an important factor in his or her academic development. It is no surprise that analysts consider the physical state of the building and classroom size as significant indicators for gauging the performance of a school system. Unfortunately, the daunting financial implications involved in correcting issues as they surface tend to result in the problem persisting.

Student Demographics

Along with the study of the physical conditions of the schools in question, another important indicator focuses on the personal characteristics of the students who attend those schools. Indeed, student demographics are a critical arena to analyze when assessing system performance, as these features can help policymakers and others assess how programs and curricula impact student development. They can also help those same groups follow money streams to ensure that budget appropriations are in fact cost-effective.

Accepting Diversity

Demographics are extensive and diverse in nature. This area includes ethnicity, race, gender, economic background, special needs or handicap, religion, and sexual orientation. Such information is used not to segregate students based on differences; rather, it is used to understand how each of these demographics react to uniform school policies and lesson plans. School systems whose student populations include large numbers of wealthy and poor children may find value in assessing this demographic to determine the price of books, meals, and other goods and services. Similarly, systems in urban areas with large numbers of Spanish-, Creole-, Vietnamese- or African-speaking students may want to determine the scope and expense of bilingual or English immersion programs based on demographic data. Even special education programs designed to assist those with behavioral conditions, physical handicaps, or developmental challenges rely on information that reflects the number of students in need of specific assistance in order to qualify for state and federal aid.

The point of using student demographics as an indicator of school performance is fairly straightforward. If administrations wish to ensure that each student is able to understand curricula, acquire strong marks, graduate during his or her senior year of high school, and, ultimately, become a contributing part of the economy, they must be willing to fully appreciate the diverse populations walking through school hallways.

For example, a recent study of urban schools focused on the transition of boys from middle school into high school. The goal of the study was to assess student performance as affected by ethnic and racial perceptions during these school years. The result of the study was that young people, particularly African American boys, who felt isolated due to what the authors called "ethnic incongruence" during their middle school years developed a sense of withdrawal of interest in continuing their education when they entered high school. In fact, they became concerned about their own academic performance when they left middle school and entered the far more complex and diverse world of high school (Benner & Graham, 2007).

Diverse Classrooms

Student demographics may also help administrations appreciate the best possible format by which teachers may lead diverse classes. In many situations, a teacher who leads a class by him- or herself may prove effectual in delivering lessons to diverse classrooms. However, there may be conditions, such as those found in classrooms that include children with physical, developmental, or emotional handicaps, or even those in which English is not the primary language spoken, in which a teacher may need help. Team teaching, in these cases, may prove better at helping students by creating more opportunities for one-on-one or small group treatment (Carpenter, 2007).

Sensitivities toward notions of racial or ethnic profiling and/or discrimination remain on the minds of those who are witness to the use of social demographics as an indicator of educational performance. Nevertheless, there is little doubt that in many capacities, careful use of this key indicator may help policymakers better understand how budget dollars are best spent to ensure a positive response.

Teacher Qualifications

Another important element to assess in the analysis of a school system is one that likely generates the most controversy. Ideally, any teacher working in a given school system is fully conversant in subject matter and, overall, well-qualified to work with students. Arguably, instances to the contrary are few and far between. Of course, in the never-ending and often fiercely political environment of education reform, those who present the lessons and issue the grades are often viewed as potentially part of the problem when a problem exists.

In many states, the aptitude of teachers is just as important an indicator of educational performance as student scoring. In Arkansas, a program designed as an incentive to teachers to facilitate strong student performance, the Awarding Excellence in Achievement program, offers bonuses to teachers based on student gains on state examinations as well as in assessments by principals and their teaching peers ("State board sets performance-pay rules," 2007).

The notion of the educator (and, in fact, the other members of the faculty and school administration) as central to positive student performance is illustrative of his or her role as a bellweather for gauging that aptitude. A Harvard University study of school performance in high-poverty areas suggests the role of educators is critical to the improvement of test scores and grades in low-income students:

“Schools should be run by school principals who know how to recruit and support effective teachers and provide them with the tools to do this work. Schools should attract and support experienced, skilled teachers committed to working together over an extended period to continuously improve instruction. School staff should monitor the learning of every student, intervene at the first sign that a student is not making good progress toward mastering critical skills, and provide alternatives when conventional pedagogies are not effective” (Murnane, 2007).

Education reform, one of the most pressing domestic issues in the United States today, is as complex as it is challenging. Although the issue of teacher qualifications is sensitive and highly politically charged, there can be no doubt that in addition to the role of parents, teachers and their peers play an important part as well. The skills and professional qualifications of teachers are therefore a useful area to assess when studying school performance.

Student Testing

The most potent response to issues with student performance has been in student testing. Like assessments of teacher qualification, the testing of students as an indicator of how school systems succeed (or fail) is a politically charged issue, although useful in many ways. Proponents of this long-used gauge assert that those who do not believe in testing in this manner are attempting to hide the shortcomings of the system. Former US Secretary of Education Rodney Paige summarizes this point: "Anyone who opposes annual testing is an apologist for a broken system of education that dismisses certain children and classes of children as unteachable" (Samuelsen, 2001).

Controversy over Testing

Testing does have strong merits. Standardized assessments of students in mathematics, writing, and other basic skills have their place, particularly for educators and administrators who hope to better comprehend the capabilities of their students. Such tests may help reveal shortcomings in curricula, such as a lack of focus on algebra or grammar. Standardized testing, which has been in use in the United States for decades (on every level of the K–12 progression), has helped evaluate student familiarity with basic skills and subjects to ensure that when an individual moves to the higher grade, he or she has the tools necessary for success.

What makes student testing such a controversial issue is a perceived emphasis by state and federal agencies on test scores as the sole indicator of a student's academic capabilities. There is considerable opposition, particularly among teachers, to emphasizing the bulk of curricula on helping develop the capability not to master certain subject areas but rather to master them to the point of passing a standardized test. To some, it is best to leave assessment to the teachers themselves, as these are the individuals on whose shoulders student achievement falls. Others believe that preparing students for passing state and federal performance tests takes away from other forms of learning (Stiggins, 2007).

Still, even though there are issues to be resolved in the format and practice of standardized testing, there remains a viable use of this measure for assessing student performance in school systems. As is the case with quizzes, midterm exams, and finals, standardized test scores can provide strong evidence of the areas in which improvement can be made and, if employed properly, can even help students progress through each critical grade level in a way that is satisfactory for political leaders, educators, administrators, and parents.

Conclusions

Virtually every advanced society on the planet believes that the education of young people is the highest priority in terms of policymaking. After all, an educated individual contributes more to society in any form of employment, contributing to the economy instead of drawing from it, and perhaps even helping that society to forge a new path to the future.

It comes as no surprise, therefore, that political leaders in particular have taken a strong interest in ensuring that students be afforded every possible resource and that they derive the maximum benefit from those resources. Those who fail in school, they argue, become less of a contributor and less useful to the economy. If school systems show signs that they are not reaching students, leaders look for reasons for those shortcomings. In short, they look for a series of indicators that may suggest why systems are not performing in the manner society demands.

This paper has outlined a few of the key indicators used in the assessment US educational system. They center on a number of areas — quality of student life, social demographics, teacher qualifications, and, of course, the academic capabilities of the students themselves.

First, the conditions of the schools themselves provide an important series of clues about the state of a learning institution. If ventilation or lighting is poor, or there are environmental conditions that can influence a student's health and concentration, an accounting of this key indicator will likely provide an illustration of the issue at hand. Similarly, if classroom conditions are prohibitive to student growth (e.g., classes are overcrowded, thereby hindering one-on-one attention), academic development may also be placed at risk.

There is also considerable importance placed on demographics as a key indicator for educational assessment. As this paper has demonstrated, how students interact with diverse groups of varying ethnicity, race, creed, or orientation can affect development and, with relevant and tangible data available, serves as a vital tool for studying student performance.

Naturally, the study of trends in educational development and student performance cannot be discussed without also paying attention to the qualifications of those who work with these young people. While political posturing and confrontational rhetoric sometimes apply a somewhat negative connotation to this component of education, there can be little doubt that a qualified teacher who remains dedicated to the development of his or her students is an integral component of the educational system. Their qualifications as a member of a system's faculty are therefore an important indicator of systemic performance.

Finally, there remains a place in educational performance assessment for student testing. Like teacher qualifications, this indicator is not without controversy, particularly when the value of the test and the application of collected data are called into question. Testing can yield important clues, however, of the areas of study that are either strong or deficient. In use for over 50 years, and likely to continue being used for years to come, standardized tests represent a culmination of the work that goes into a public school education by the school system, the teachers, administrations, and, above all else, the students themselves.

Terms & Concepts

Demographics: Social groupings based on ethnicity, race, gender, economic status, and orientation.

Educational Indicators: Key elements in the assessment of performance in school systems.

Education Reform: Political and social movement to revise and update the public school system.

K–12: Basic grade-level track in US public school system - Kindergarten through 12th grade.

Standardized Testing: Examinations issued by federal, state, and local agencies to assess student performance in varying subject areas.

Bibliography

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Suggested Reading

Bryant, A. L. (2007). Straight talk on graduation rates. District Administration, 43, 78. Retrieved December 4, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=25090256&site=ehost-live

Carey, K. (2007). Truth without action: The myth of higher-education accountability. Change, 39, 24–29. Retrieved December 4, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=26496481&site=ehost-live

Mahoney, J. (2006). How value-added assessment helps improve schools. Edge: The Latest Information for the Education Practitioner, 1, 3–18. Retrieved December 3, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=20046446&site=ehost-live

Wolfe, F. (2013). U.S. highest in per-student spending in OECD nations. Education Daily, 46, 1–2. Retrieved December 30, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89153798

Zuckerman, M. (2003). A hard look at what works. US News and World Report, 135, 83–84. Retrieved December 3, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=11413912&site=ehost-live