Volunteer Teaching Opportunities

Volunteer teachers are individuals with or without formal training in teaching or pedagogy who serve broadly in the roles of "teachers" or instructional adjuncts to provide education inside and outside of conventional classroom settings. The history of volunteer teaching is the history of volunteer-teaching programs such as the Peace Corps, Teach for America and Head Start. Those serving in the roles of volunteer teachers include parents, community members and professional workers from business and industry. Capable volunteer teachers handle many duties and responsibilities-individualized instruction and one-on-one tutoring, small-group facilitation and enrichment-that relate directly to school learning. Volunteers maximize teachers' effectiveness by reinforcing their instruction. The use of volunteer teachers provides a means to involve the community in education and promote closer school-community relationships. A variety of pedagogical challenges must be overcome in the training of volunteer teachers so they can effectively and successfully operate within the constraints of volunteer-teaching delivery programs.

Keywords Clerical Duties; Docents; Enrichment; Extension Curriculum; Instructional Adjuncts; Practicum; Released Time; Service Learning; Teacher Corps; Volunteer Teaching; Volunteer Teaching Program; Volunteer Teachers; Volunteerism

Overview

Thousands of people without formal training in education or pedagogy serve as volunteer teachers in the U. S. It has been estimated that one in five Americans volunteer some of their time to help out in local schools. And yet, there is a need to explore ways of increasing volunteerism in the public schools by developing new volunteer programs in which community members can further contribute to education (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Dean, 1987; Utah State Office of Education, 1988). Volunteer teachers, teaching assistants, and teacher aides assume different types of teaching duties and responsibilities both inside and outside of the conventional educational system. The utilization of volunteer teachers generally improves the educational opportunities of public school students by providing increased individualization.

The use of volunteer teachers is one successful way to stretch the supply of teachers. Much of the work of bringing American education and U. S. schools back to "excellence" will be due to hundreds of isolated local efforts involving thousands of part-time volunteers. Real and positive change in education will be brought about through local efforts, catalyzed by volunteers, giving of their time, knowledge and personal resources to support and sustain young people in securing the education they need to become responsible, well-rounded adults and succeed in today's high-tech, information-rich world (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Wagener, 1996).

History

The history of volunteer teaching is very much the history of the programs which have relied heavily on their use. For example, in the U. S., volunteer teachers have been crucial in the area of adult and general literacy education. Heavy immigration during the turn of the 20th century from countries whose populations were not uniformly educated necessitated literacy programs. During World Wars I and II, it was learned that many adults had difficulty reading and writing and special attention began to be paid to adult literacy. As a result of increased federal legislation during the 1950s and 1960s, literacy-education programs were able to begin hiring and training professionals (Cook, 1979).

One of the first programs to use volunteers as teachers was the Peace Corps during the 1960s and 1970s. The Peace Corps' roots and mission can be traced to early 1960 when Senator John F. Kennedy challenged students at the University of Michigan to serve their country while working in developing countries. Later, as President, Kennedy sent thousands of Peace Corps volunteers into service overseas. Over 190,000 Peace Corps volunteers have worked in 139 host countries across the globe on issues ranging from environmental preservation to information technology, business development and AIDS education. Today's Peace Corps' volunteers are involved in teaching and addressing the educational needs of children worldwide. Volunteers have served as teachers of science, mathematics, computers, agriculture and many other subjects (Adhikary, 1972; Blatchford, 1970; Peace Corps, 2007).

Head Start is another government-sponsored program that has actively promoted using volunteers and community resources since its inception in 1965. Head Start programs promote school readiness by addressing the social- and cognitive-development needs of children and providing a variety of services-educational, health, nutritional-to enrolled children and families. Head Start parents are engaged as volunteers in their children's learning and in meeting their educational and literacy goals. Four out of five parents of children in Head Start programs volunteer to serve as teachers' aides or to provide other needed services (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Head Start Bureau, 1989; Office of Head Start, 2007).

The past decade or two has seen the increased use of college graduate volunteer teachers with the growth of the Teach for America program. Teach for America's first year of operation was in 1990 when 500 men and women began teaching in six low-income communities across the U. S. Teach for America was founded by Wendy Kopp, a Princeton University college senior, who proposed the teacher corps in her undergraduate thesis. Teach for America has grown to become the nation's largest provider of teachers for low-income communities (Fenzel & Flippen, 2006; Teach for America, 2006).

Further Insights

Types of Volunteers

Volunteer teachers are members of the larger, local community. They are parents or other interested adults who offer themselves as volunteers to work in schools and serve as valuable instructional resources, part-time teachers, teaching aides, teaching assistants or special tutors and mentors. Many parents have the desire to help with their children's education and may initially become involved in their preschool programs. Other volunteers were actually teachers themselves before they started their own families. Parents and others who want to act as volunteer teachers can be recruited through the parent-teacher association or the school newspaper (Acquafredda, 1993; Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Lewis & Doorlag, 1987).

Corporate volunteerism is another avenue which can help to meet public educational needs. Major corporations are becoming involved and finding ways to revitalize local schools. Corporate philanthropists have even built and staffed schools in some instances. Volunteers from local businesses are eager to back up teachers, and industry workers can serve as a large supply of potential volunteers. Professionals in business and industry have knowledge of technical subjects and fields; more so than graduates of teachers' colleges. Corporate volunteer teachers can provide education and training in careers, vocational programs and cutting-edge disciplines like computer programming, biomedical technology and telecommunications (Cetron & Gayle, 1991).

Programs

In addition to the programs such as Head Start, Peace Corps and Teach for America, there are a variety of other programs that make use of volunteer teachers. Schools nationwide have created volunteer programs for civilians or local-community individuals who are eager to assist in education. The goal in many cases is the implementation of model programs. Exemplars include programs in which volunteers from local industries regularly replace teachers in the classroom to free up time for their professional development. Parent Academy is a parental school-involvement program which links schools, teachers and parent volunteers. In addition, there are exemplary programs in which college seniors serve as volunteer teachers in inner-city schools (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Comeaux, 1971; Education Development Center Inc., 1994; Utah State Office of Education, 1988; World Future Society, 1994).

America Reads Challenge & Teach Baltimore

Many parents serve as volunteer teachers, teacher aides and vital participants in reading programs in schools. The national America Reads Challenge initiative is a volunteer reading tutoring program. University undergraduate and graduate students also serve as volunteer teachers assisting elementary students to improve their reading. Literacy Education Action (LEA) is another program developed as an instructional model for teaching literacy to vocational students (Bond, 2002; Clymer, 1989; Heimberger, 1978; Siddall, 1999). Volunteer teachers are used in alternative urban middle schools for at-risk children from low-income homes. Another after-school enrichment and prevention activity program for middle-school students uses community volunteers to provide instruction and support. Teach Baltimore is a program using trained volunteer teachers to prevent summer learning loss in low-income, public elementary-school students (Borman, Rachuba, Hewes, Boulay, & Kaplan, 2001; Fenzel & Flippen, 2006; Greaser, 1995).

TESOL & ESL Programs

Volunteer teachers have been widely used in language-learning programs and courses such as TESOL-Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages-and ESL-English-as-a-Second Language. A Phoenix, Arizona program uses parent volunteers to teach Spanish to fifth and sixth graders. In another program, a cohort of working adults from a local area along the Arizona-Mexico border serve as volunteer teachers, teacher interns and teaching assistants to teach bilingual Spanish-English classes for elementary special-education students. Other related volunteer language-teaching efforts include tutoring refugees to read English, preparing young welfare mothers for their GED exams, and teaching illiterate and near-illiterate youthful offenders how to read (Acquafredda, 1993; Dean, 1990; Kutner, 1992; Murray, 1999; Snow, 2006; Ver Velde, Ver Velde, Prater, & Minner, 1999).

Cooperative Extension Service

Parents have been recruited and used as volunteer teachers to teach practical living skills such as cooking, sewing, auto mechanics and crafts to students. Senior-citizen homemakers have been used as high-school volunteer home-economics class teachers of areas such as canning and preserving foods. The Cooperative Extension Service maintains a system of statewide volunteer teachers. Teens have also gotten into the act and have served as volunteer teachers of a web-based 4-H extension curriculum (Bolton, 2007; Gouse, 1979; Henry, 1974; Safrit, Edwards, & Flood, 2004).

Schools have offered adult education as a community service and have made use of volunteer teachers in teaching adult basic education or ABE classes. A variety of other programs have used volunteers to teach adults in an informal "free university" setting. The YWCA also uses volunteer teachers in adult-education programs (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Davies, 1976; Kutner, 1992; Wu & Carter, 2001).

There are additionally various informal, nontraditional educational entities that make use of volunteer teachers. For example, zoos, museums and parks use volunteer teachers called docents to fulfill their educational missions (Albuquerque Biological Park, 2007).

Duties & Responsibilities

Volunteer teachers, teaching assistants, teacher aides, and in-class resource specialists face many of the same duties and responsibilities as regular classroom teachers. For example, they may have roles in curriculum development, instruction and assessment. They may apply the same basic principles of teaching and learning, educational theory and different modes of teaching in various contexts and environments. They must often address the same classroom issues in planning and preparing for teaching. They confront many similar problems in planning successful lessons, classes and courses. They must develop practical and relevant teaching activities, teaching materials and instructional aids for classroom use. They must decide on the instructional methods and classroom procedures to be implemented (Draves, 1976; Snow, 1996).

Capable volunteer teachers and tutors can handle many tasks relating directly to school learning. They can provide specific lessons, instructional assistance, special classroom presentations and one-on-one tutoring to problem students. In addition to instructional support in certain subject areas, adult and parent volunteers can perform clerical duties and housekeeping chores. They can serve as members of curriculum development committees, participants in various extracurricular activities, and as consultants for planning and improving the school physical plant and facilities. Volunteers can be given increased roles and responsibilities as they demonstrate competence inside and outside the classroom (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Fenzel & Flippen, 2006; Holleman, 1975; Lewis & Doorlag, 1987).

Volunteer teachers can assist in areas such as tutoring/mentoring, enrichment, small-group facilitation, negotiation/conflict resolution and student affirmation. Volunteers can usually specify areas of interest such as working directly with individual students, working with small groups, supervising activities outside the classroom or performing clerical duties. Among the more clerical duties are grading papers, providing library supervision, helping with non-routine events such as career days and chaperoning field trips (Draves, 1976; Lewis & Doorlag, 1987; Shifflett, 1994; Wagener, 1996).

The academic activities commonly taught by volunteer teachers include the use of computers, study skills, science projects, foreign languages, military history, drama and journalism. The more general interest or elective courses and hobby-type activities taught by volunteer teachers may include such diverse areas as board games, chorus, quilting, dance, aerobics, fashion, investing, embroidery and jewelry making (Greaser, 1995).

Viewpoints

Advantages

The use of volunteer teachers in schools and related programs offers a variety of associated benefits. It utilizes inexpensive teaching resources of an unpaid staff of volunteers made available at little or no cost. Volunteers play an important role in encouraging appropriate changes in schools as outsiders with insiders' points of view (Powell, 1986; Utah State Office of Education, 1988; Wagener, 1996).

Public Schools

In the public schools, the use of trained volunteer teachers can help to remedy some of the difficulties students experience. The volunteerism model fosters active learning by using a mentoring, coaching, facilitating and constructivist approach to education. Volunteer teachers provide individual help and assistance to students to stimulate their interests. The effective use of volunteers improves students' achievement and enables them to become facilitators of their own learning (LeVine & Schmitz, 1973; Murphy, Mahoney, Chen, Mendoza-Diaz, & Yang, 2005; Utah State Office of Education, 1988; Wagener, 1996).

In addition, they can relieve teachers of "non-professional" duties and free them up to spend more time giving individual attention to students who need it most.

Parents as volunteers can be utilized within school settings to enrich students' experiences and educational opportunities. Parents can act as role models and resource persons. Parents are in a good position to discover children's interests and to perceive their emotional reactions to learning situations. At the same time, the experience of working in school classrooms broadens parent-volunteers' knowledge and appreciation of the educational process (Haimberger, 1978; Haley, 1985; Hollerman, 1975; Powell, 1986).

Involving the Community

The use of volunteer teachers provides a means to involve the community in education, increase intergroup involvement and promote closer school-community relationships. Forming partnerships with homes, businesses and other organizations can improve public relations among schools, teachers and the community. Volunteer teaching programs use community resources to enrich educational opportunities. They "mine" the expertise of local community volunteers whose work experience is relevant to teachers' subject matter. They match the specific needs of school teachers with the interests, skills, talents and time of volunteers (Education Development Center Inc., 1994; Haley, 1985; LeVine & Schmitz, 1973; Utah State Office of Education, 1988).

Local community volunteers from businesses and industry can support the professional development of classroom teachers by contributing a resource that is otherwise difficult to obtain-released time. This affords teachers the opportunity to meet together during school hours without hiring costly substitute teachers (Education Development Center Inc., 1994).

Disadvantages

Overall, few disadvantages are reported regarding volunteer programs in schools. However, implementing a program necessitates resources in oversight and organization.

Organization & Training

Volunteer teacher programs face bureaucratic hurdles and associated red tape. They need to be properly supported and maintained, and require a structural organization and administrative oversight such as a volunteer coordinator, an advisory committee, ongoing management and supervision. Program policies must be implemented by program managers, volunteer coordinators and staff. Teachers must supervise and monitor the performance of volunteers. Evaluation components need to be developed and administered. Before all of this happens, volunteers need to be recruited, screened, interviewed and placed. In some cases, there may be difficulties in matching volunteer teaching interests with areas of volunteer needed in school districts (Fenzel & Flippen, 2006; Haley, 1985; LeVine & Schmitz, 1973; Lewis & Doorlag, 1987; Powell, 1986; Walker, Scherry, & Morrow, 1999).

Volunteers should be well-trained. Orientation and training sessions normally need to be planned and conducted for instructional volunteer personnel in effective teaching and tutoring strategies. Materials used in development workshops to train volunteers need to be formulated and constructed. Various pedagogical challenges must be overcome in the training of volunteer teachers. Additional training programs that focus on human-relation skills among volunteers, teachers and students may be necessitated. Despite the obvious need for training of volunteer teachers and instructors, some receive very little or no training, either in subject-matter content or in the process of teaching. There are in actuality few state training regulations or requirements for volunteer teachers (Fenzel & Flippen, 2006; Haley, 1985; Kutner, 1992; LeVine & Schmitz, 1973; Lewis & Doorlag, 1987; Walker, Scherry, & Morrow, 1999).

There is typically very limited financial resources to meet volunteerism program costs. Although they are for the most part unpaid volunteers, they may very well incur certain allowable expenses in the course of their work. There is also a possible need for liability coverage for volunteers. For government record-keeping regulations and taxation purposes, volunteer services may need to be documented, valued and analyzed for matching requirements (Head Start Bureau, 1989; Kutner, 1992).

Conclusion

Research related to the use of volunteer teachers is generally specific to the academic field or educational area-for example, reading and literacy programs, English-as-a-Second Language, adult-basic education or distance education (Bond, 2002; Kutner, 1992: Murphy et al., 2005).

Research has determined that the training of volunteer teacher associates should generally include observation, classroom sessions, a public school practicum and two full days of work per week at a local school (Wagener, 1996). The use of volunteer teachers in a rural primary school has been found to increase regular classroom-teacher planning time, general instructional time and individualized-instructional time (Shifflett, 1994). The use of trained college student volunteers to prevent summer learning loss of low-income, public elementary school students showed consistent, although not statistically significant, positive effects for high attendance participants (Borman et al., 2001). The use of community volunteer 'mentors' to provide individualized support and guidance to gifted children in research techniques and in conducting independent research studies has been found to be efficacious (Cellerino, 1981).

Terms & Concepts

Clerical Duties: Tasks performed in support and assistance to a professional such as a teacher in a school classroom.

Docents: Volunteer teachers which are used by zoos, museums, parks and other informal educational programs to fulfill their educational missions.

Enrichment: Offering additional, supplementary learning opportunities and activities of special interest to some students (e.g., gifted students) typically outside or beyond the normal or core curriculum.

Extension Curriculum: An educational program or course of study provided in the extended community-outside the conventional school settings; includes distance education and web-based courses.

Instructional Adjuncts: Individuals associated with and serving in auxiliary capacities to teachers in performing educational duties and fulfilling related responsibilities; teaching assistants.

Practicum: An educational assignment offering practical, active, "on-the-job" experience in a specific work setting (e.g., an internship in a public-school classroom).

Released Time: Time during normal school hours in which teachers are freed from their regular duties in order to meet for professional development.

Teacher Corps: An organized national, statewide or local group of teachers serving together and performing roles toward a common purpose under shared leadership.

Volunteerism: The practice of giving and performing voluntary services without associated cost or obligation.

Volunteer Teachers: Teachers, and related instructional support personnel, who provide varied educational services inside and outside of traditional, conventional school classrooms on a voluntary or free-will, and usually no-cost, basis.

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Suggested Reading

Clemens-Brower, T. J. (1997). Recruiting parents and the community. Educational Leadership, 54 , 58-60. Retrieved November 05, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9704152779&site=ehost-live

Coeyman, M. (1992). Volunteer teacher takes on the unions. Christian Science Monitor, 92 , 17. Retrieved November 05, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=2606582&site=ehost-live

Fox, C. (1999). The good woman of Nepal. UNESCO Sources, 116, 20-21. Retrieved November 05, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=2677077&site=ehost-live

Waggoner, K., & Griffith, A. (1998). Parent involvement in education. Journal for a Just & Caring Education, 4 , 65-77.