Web - Based Instruction

Abstract

This article discusses K–12 Web-based instruction, which is also known as online learning. Web-based instruction can be synonymous with computer-based blended learning, in which using the Internet within a traditional classroom setting is an adjunct to daily classroom work. Web-based instruction can also mean distance education or the use of virtual charter schools, both of which use the Internet as nearly the entire means of communication between teacher and student. Some educators believe that this latter version of Web-based instruction holds great promise in the face of shrinking education budgets, teacher shortages, and wired learners, while other educators argue that Web-based instruction detracts from the face-to-face interaction between teacher and student that gives children the best chance of vocational success later in life.

Overview

As Rohland-Heinrich & Jensen (2007) note, Web-based instruction is the latest manifestation of a continuous stream of innovation within the American educational system:

"This movement toward virtual teaching and learning follows on the coat tails of the charter and alternative school movements intended to expand educational delivery systems that maximize individualized instruction rather than the traditional one-size-fits-all school model" (p. 8).

In their survey of the topic, Picciano & Seaman (2007) note that, true to its pedagogical pedigree, "online learning is not one thing but comes in various shapes and sizes" (p. 20).

This multidimensional aspect of Web-based instruction tends to hamper proper classification and analysis of the topic. In the literature, the phrase "Web-based instruction" has come to mean several different things, and thus it becomes essential to define one's terms at the outset. What precisely is online learning? To that end, it is useful to begin with the categories created by Allen and Seaman (2006, p. 1):

Online—A course where most or all of the content is delivered online. Defined as at least 80 percent of seat time being replaced by online activity.

Blended/Hybrid—A course that blends online and face-to-face delivery. Substantial proportion (30 to 79 percent) of the content is delivered online.

Web-Facilitated—Course that uses web-based technology (1 to 29 percent of the content is delivered online) to facilitate what is essentially a face-to-face course…

As these categories indicate, Web-based instruction can take several different forms, with only one form involving a complete lack of face-to-face interaction between teachers and students. In many cases, Web-based instruction involves what Allen and Seamen refer to as a "blended/hybrid" or "Web-facilitated" model.

Colleges and universities, already early adopters of computer and Internet technology, were the pioneers in Web-based instruction. The first recognizable computer-assisted learning tool was PLATO III, the brainchild of University of Illinois physicist Chalmers Sherwin and his lab assistant, Donald Bitzer. PLATO I was launched as a pilot project in 1960, and by the time PLATO III, the third-generation of the technology, was launched in 1969, the system allowed instructors to program their own lesson modules. PLATO III was accessed by students at the university through custom-built terminals. Similar examples were found across other colleges and universities in the United States in the 1970s.

By the 1980s, computer technology had advanced to the point where more and more Americans were buying personal computers. Popular models such as the Apple IIe, the Apple Macintosh Plus/SE, and various IBM PC clones began to transform how students and their parents lived and worked. Educational software began to proliferate as increasingly powerful computers found their way into K–12 classrooms. Students put aside typewriters and began to use the new machines for composing school papers.

Still, despite the advances made by computer technology in the 1980s, there were inherent limitations. Client-server computing, which made it possible for students sitting at terminals in different classrooms to go through the same lessons, was only able to network students at that particular school. The content of the computer-based lessons was also limited; it was either created by the teacher or purchased in the form of floppy disks or, later, CD-ROMs.

In the early 1990s, a new phenomenon known as the Internet began to transform e-learning, making it web-based rather than simply computer-based. Using the Internet, students were able to tap into a global community—a worldwide web—of teachers and learners to expand their educational horizons. And teachers began to join together across the globe to share resources and advice. While educational software didn't disappear entirely, it was supplemented by a bounty of free, quality content available to anyone with an Internet connection.

The reach of the World Wide Web quickly expanded—some would say exploded—across the educational landscape: by 1998, 67 percent of all private schools had Internet access, and among Catholic schools, the number rose to 83 percent (NCES, 2000, p. 2); while only 35 percent of public schools were wired in 1994, the number climbed to 93 percent by 2009 (Wells & Lewis, 2006, p. 4; US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2010). Moreover, the ratio of students to Internet-enabled computers dropped from 12.1 to 1 in 1998 to 3 to 1 in 2008 (Warschauer, 2010), meaning that more and more students had easier access to the Internet at school (Wells & Lewis, 2006, p. 6). Fast broadband connections provided quicker access to web-based information: only 3 percent of wired schools were using slower dial-up technology by 2005 (Wells & Lewis, 2006, p. 6).

According to overall numbers published by the U.S. Census Bureau, the percentage of American homes with Internet access also kept pace. Access increased from 26.2 percent of homes in 1998 to 71.7 percent in 2011 , but in homes with children aged 3–17, the 2011 number was 60.2 percent (US Census Bureau, 2013). These numbers are still growing, and now a number of major US cities, including Boston and San Francisco, are bringing free or low-cost wireless Internet access to all their residents.

These trends form a backdrop for the advent of Web-based instruction in the later 1990s. As fast, reasonably priced, and accessible Internet access became available to more and more K–12 students, many in the education community began to conceive of ways to use it to improve education in America. Web-based education was one of the ideas discussed during the national conversation about education reform and outcome-based education culminating in the passage of the historic No Child Left Behind Act of 2001.

Perhaps not surprisingly, colleges and universities have taken the lead in Web-based education. In 2006, over 3.5 million people were participating in online education in one form or another; by 2009, 96 percent of traditional “brick and mortar” universities were offering online coursework with approximately 45 percent of college students participating in at least one online course. By 2014, it is estimated that over 80 percent of all post-secondary students will be taking at least one of their classes online (Rasmussen College, 2011).

An article published in Education Digest in 2007 stated that technology usage in schools had risen almost 300 percent since the 1970s (Gosmire & Grady, 2007). In 2006, Learning Point Associates estimated that more than 1 million students participated in some form of online learning, and many high schools had added online coursework as a graduation requirement (Rohland-Heinrich & Jensen, 2007). The US Department of Education reported that in 2006 approximately 328,000 public school students in the United States were enrolled in online or video-based education courses (Gosmire & Grady, 2007).

As for K–12 students, the statistics for the 2005-2006 school year are telling:

• There are an estimated 700,000 public school students enrolled in online courses.
• Nearly two-thirds (or 63 percent) of schools had at least one student taking a blended course or one conducted entirely online.
• More than 60 percent of the school districts that had e-learning students expected web-based course enrollments to increase 19 percent over the next two years. They expect blended enrollments to rise by 23 percent. (Picciano & Seaman, 2007, pp. 7–9)

These numbers do not include home-schooled students, an often-overlooked segment of young learners. A detailed survey published by the U.S. Department of Education in 2006 reported that 19 percent of home-schoolers (amounting to 212,000 students) used the "Internet, email or web" to take part in distance learning as of 2003 (NCES, 2006, fig. 3, table 6).

A footnote in the U.S. Department of Education statistical report comments on an important trend in Web-based instruction across the United States: students can take delivery of content in different, but mutually-reinforcing ways. As noted above, Allen and Seaman's research (2006, p. 1), reveals that Web-based learning can take three main forms: online, blended/hybrid, and web-facilitated. The type of Web-based instruction that is used is often determined by factors such as the classroom instructor's familiarity Web-based tools and the student's level of comfort with self-paced learning. Another factor is the level of concern school administrators have regarding quality control. Picciano and Seaman note that "many school districts continue to have concerns about quality, student readiness, and staff development related to online education. It may be that blended instruction is a better option for districts with these concerns" (Picciano & Seaman, 2007, p. 19). In 2010, more than 70 percent of the school districts in the United States had some form of online learning (Molnar, 2013, p. 10).

In 2020 and 2021, the global coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused schools of all levels across the globe to shut down their physical locations and transition to online learning. Beginning in March 2020, the majority of schools in the United States began utilizing web-based instruction exclusively. This transition into a hybrid online model during the 2020–21 school year.

Further Insights

The Role of Emotional Interaction in Web-based Instruction. Any successful attempt at Web-based instruction must be aware that students have hearts as well as heads. To that end, online course developers must be cognizant of the fact that interaction that doesn't take place face-to-face poses a unique set of challenges. Hughes, Ventura & Dando (2007) suggest that to ensure a level of emotional interaction for Web-based instruction, there are some basic guidelines:

Course design needs to encompass issues of team development, dynamics and trust, while the management of process requires feedback into how the group is performing. The pointers … put forward to maintaining a safe learning environment involve clear respectful communication and the demonstration of empathy by facilitators. Further, facilitators need to adopt a friendly and humorous approach and they need to be timely in responses to students' enquiries… there needs to be informal and frequent feedback and praise. McFadzean and McKenzie (2001) go on to say that the learning process should be structured to allow students to introduce emotions and feeling into their text. Knowlton (2000) goes further, saying that the interchange of emotions is part of the process of online existence and socialisation. This means that there needs to be a means of objective, academic debate and, lying alongside this, subjective feelings and emotions within the learning environment (Hughes, Ventura & Dando, 2007, pp. 18–19).

These methods are not unlike those used in face-to-face instruction, but online learning facilitators must be more intentional in creating such an emotionally fulfilling environment. This appears to be confirmed by the neurological research of Damasio (1994), who showed that reason and emotion are interdependent in all human endeavors.

The Role of Libraries & Librarians. As Web-based learning becomes more popular, the need has arisen for a liaison between teachers and students or parents and students. This is because parents and teachers may agree with the concept of Web-based learning, but struggle with the technology and teaching methods needed to make their Web-based learning efforts a success.

Librarians can become these trusted advisors. Rohland-Heinrich and Jensen (2007) suggest three specific ways in which librarians can support Web-based instruction: "curriculum development, online instruction enhancement, and student-learning support in the virtual environment" (p. 37). Librarians will continue to be important resources for parents, teachers, and students as they venture into the area of Web-based learning. Librarians can point educators toward useful literature on the subject and help parents and teachers deal with the unique pedagogical challenges that arise when all or part of student instruction takes places online.

Software & Hardware. An important point about Web-based learning is that the technological barriers to entry are low. Students simply need a computer, free software, and a connection to the Internet to get started. Common virtual learning products include Moodle, Learnwise, Blackboard, or Studywiz (Thane, 2007) all of which provide virtual storage space for teachers to upload learning activities, assessments, and media files for students to access from a computer or mobile device anywhere there is Internet service (Thane, 2007; Benson & Morgan, 2013). Teachers and students are often provided with email addresses and a forum for online chats or discussions about the learning material. Some databases have calendars for students to practice time management and a place for parents to observe what students are working on (Thane, 2007).

The spread of free internet access at public libraries, in schools, and across larger US cities is making connectivity easier for more children who might not have Internet availability at home. In 2013, President Obama announced the initiatives that by 2018, 99 percent of all US students would have access to high-speed internet and that teachers and administrators would be provided with training and support to incorporate technology in the classroom (Meyer, 2013). That goal was reached in 2019, according to EducationSuperHighway, however, the COVID-19 pandemic showed that while schools nationwide were connected to high-speed internet, about 12 million students lacked internet access outside of school.

Viewpoints

Is Web-Based Instruction a Bad Thing?. There have been a number of critiques of Web-based instruction, but these have taken place away from the mainstream of discussion on the topic. As Alison Carr-Chellman (2006) wrote, "I wasn't really aware that there were any criticisms out there being leveled against distance education. It was (and still is to a certain extent) taboo to criticize the distance education enterprise" (p. 96).

Carr-Chellman has now become more skeptical. She writes:

Currently, there is not overwhelming or compelling evidence on either side to suggest that distance learning is an effective substitution for face-to-face instruction. This is not to suggest that we shouldn't continue to conduct a variety of qualitative and quantitative studies to further understand the effectiveness of online learning, but to suggest that the generally positive, pro-innovation nature of most current research in online learning is worthy of question (pp. 98–99).

She and others suggest that supporters of Web-based instruction have downplayed the disadvantages of this newer form of learning. For example, the literature does indicate that there are certain types of tasks that are less suited to distance learning methods:

… a task that needs much coordination may not be suitable for a text-based online discussion where visual cues are primarily absent. However, problem-solving tasks may be more appropriate for a textual online discussion (cf. Berge, 1995; Hiltz, 1994; Moallem, 2003) (Wang & Woo, 2007, p. 273).

Carr-Chellman (2006) makes the interesting observation that most supporters of distance education are not arguing for the superiority of Web-based instruction:

…the quality issue is not prominent in the current debate. Instead, most advocates build their arguments more on the needs of the students for convenient, practical, skills-oriented learning opportunities. Some advocates rely on efficiency or access as their justifications, but few right now are trying to suggest that, in fact, the actual educational worth is higher than face-to-face (p. 98).

It remains to be seen whether more visual methods of distance education can address some of the concerns articulated by Carr-Chellman and others. More research is required to determine whether the shortcomings of Web-based instruction are inherent in the medium itself, or whether they can be overcome as more sophisticated technology becomes available.

Web-Based Instruction. Watson & Ryan (2006) note that Web-based instruction is a trend that shows no signs of abating:

Online learning continues to grow rapidly across the country as an increasing number of educators and policymakers recognize the benefits of learning unconstrained by time and place. All fifty states have either state-led online learning programs, significant policies regulating online or virtual education, or both.

There are persistent claims that regulatory guidelines have failed to keep pace with the changes taking place in the field of distance education and Web-based learning. Some states, including California, require that virtual charter schools, which are funded largely by the government but without a large degree of government control and oversight, be licensed by the state's board of education. Ohio has decided not to license any more virtual charter schools until regulations can be updated to ensure a baseline of academic quality, and Colorado's largest virtual school fared poorly in a 2006 audit, prompting a push to revamp that state's regulations on Web-based learning.

According to the Washington-based Center for Education Reform, as of January 2007, over 170 cyber charter schools were in operation, which was up from 89 schools in 2002 (Robelen, 2007; Tucker, 2007). By the 2011–2012 school year, 311 full-time virtual K–12 schools were in operation, enrolling almost 200,000 students. The majority of these schools were for-profit charter schools; the remainder were operated by school districts across the nation (Molner, 2013, pp. 24–25).

As of 2013, the US government did not have any federal policy in place to expand or regulate virtual education; all significant legislation concerning virtual or online learning has been ratified at the state level. The first annual report by the National Education Policy Center in 2013 noted that from 2001 through 2007, 22 bills were passed to enact or expand online charter schools. Other bills provided legislative support to traditional publicly funded schools to encourage or mandate greater use of information technology and to develop online programs and course offerings (Molnar, 2013, p. 2). From 2008 through 2012, 157 bills in thirty-nine states were passed that were directly related to online and virtual learning (Molnar, 2013, p. 3).

There is also a movement to ensure that instructors involved in Web-based instruction, wherever they and their students live, are appropriately trained and licensed. According to Robelen (2007), the National Education Association, the nation's largest teachers' union, recently threw its support behind the idea of permitting online teaching across state lines. "The critical factor should be that the person teaching is a licensed educator in the subject area," says Barbara A. Stein, an educational technology expert for the union. (as cited in Robelen, 2007, p. 36) Robelen (2007) also notes, though, many virtual schools are aware of the challenges bred by their rising popularity:

We need to be careful that we don't turn this into the wild, wild West," says Elizabeth R. Pape, the president and chief executive officer of the Maynard, Mass.-based Virtual High School. "It's gotten to the point where we have the acceptance, and we need to work on the credibility and validity (p. 35).

Politics also comes into the picture because of questions about state funding schemes. It is still unclear how brick-and-mortar schools should be funded for those students who take at least some of their courses online, and administrators in those schools worry that they will receive less state and federal funding as students receive more instruction outside the traditional classroom environment (Picciano & Seaman, 2007, p. 19).

Terms & Concepts

Blended Learning: The use of both classroom instruction and Web-based instruction to study a particular subject.

Computer - Based Learning: The use of computers, in or out of the classroom, to replace or supplement traditional instructional methods.

Distance Education: An alternative method of schooling that requires less face-to-face instruction time in the classroom and a greater use of the world wide web.

Internet: A shorthand way to refer to a global network of computers, originally designed by the US government, that is designed to share data.

Online Learning: A method of instruction that utilizes a computer and the Internet to deliver some or all of a student's coursework.

Virtual Charter Schools: Online-only versions of charter schools. Like traditional charter schools, they are publicly funded but free of excessive government oversight.

Web-Based Instruction: The use of the World Wide Web as the primary source for content related to educational coursework.

World Wide Web: A collection of linked documents in hypertext form that are utilized on the Internet using a piece of software called a Web browser.

Bibliography

Allen, I. E. & Seaman, J. (2006). Making the grade: Online learning in the United States, 2006 Needham, MA: The Sloan Consortium. Retrieved June 1, 2007 from the Sloan Consortium. http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/survey/survey06.asp

Allison, B. (1997). How homeschoolers use the Internet: A study based on a survey of on-line services. M.A. Thesis. Salem, WV: Salem-Teikyo University. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC). http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/22/07/fd.pdf FT.-Benson, Vladlena, & Morgan, Stephanie. (2013, July 7). Student experience and ubiquitous learning in higher education: Impact of wireless and cloud applications. Creative Education, 4(8A), 1–5. Retrieved December 2, 2013, from http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ce.2013.48A001

Carnevale, D. (2005, June 28). Online courses continue to grow drastically, enrolling nearly 1 million, report says. Academe Today: The Chronicle of Higher Education's Daily Report for Subscribers. Retrieved June 1, 2007 from The Chronicle of Higher Education. http://chronicle.com/daily/2005/06/2005062802t.htm

Carr-Chellman, A. A. (2006). Desperate technologists: Critical issues in e-learning and implications for higher education. Journal of Thought, 41 , pp. 95-115. Retrieved May 29, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=20001986&site=ehost-live

Damasio, A.R. (1994). Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York: Putnam Publishing.

EducationSuperHighway. (2019). The classroom connectivity gap is now closed. Retrieved July 1, 2021, from https://stateofthestates.educationsuperhighway.org/?utm‗source=release&utm‗medium=newsroom&utm‗campaign=SotS18#national

Gosmire, D. & Grady, M. (2007). 10 questions to answer for technology to succeed in your school. 72, 12-18. Retrieved August 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=25057089&site=ehost-live

Horzum, M., & Gungoren, O. (2012). A model for beliefs, tool acceptance levels and web pedagogical content knowledge of science and technology preservice teachers towards web based instruction. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education (TOJDE), 13, 50–69. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=78294955

Hughes, M., Ventura. S. & Dando, M. (2007). Assessing social presence in online discussion groups: A replication study. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 44 , pp. 17-29. Retrieved May 30, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24154085&site=ehost-live

Jacobson, L. (2021 March 15). Attending school at a fast-food spot: 12m US students lack internet a year into pandemic. Gaurdian. Retrieved July 1, 2021, from https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/mar/15/us-students-online-access-internet-pandemic-virtual-learning

Kwan Eu, L., & Alexander, N. (2013). Exploring Attitudes And Achievement Of Web-Based Homework In Developmental Algebra. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 12, 75–79. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=91261477

Li, C., and Lalani, F. (2020, April 29). The COVID-19 pandemic has changed education forever. This is how. World Economic Forum. Retrieved July 1, 2021, from https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/04/coronavirus-education-global-covid19-online-digital-learning/

Meyers, Leila. (2013, June 6). President Obama reveals initiative to connect 99 percent of student to high-speed broadband with 5 years. Retrieved December 21, 2013, from http://thejournal.com/articles/2013/06/06/president-obama-reveals-initiative.aspx

Molnar, Alex. (Ed.). (2013, May). Virtual schools in the US 2013: Politics, performance, policy, and research evidence. National Education Policy Center. Retrieved December 2, 2013, from http://nepc.colorado.edu/files/nepc-virtual-2013.pdf

National Center for Education Statistics. (2006). Homeschooling in the United States, 2003: Statistical analysis report. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from the National Center for Education Statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2006/homeschool/

National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). In brief: Computer and Internet access in private schools and classrooms: 1995 and 1998. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from National Center for Education Statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2000/20000044.pdf

Picciano, A. G. & Seaman, J. (2007). K-12 online learning: A survey of U.S. school district administrators. Needham, MA: The Sloan Consortium. Retrieved May 26, 2007 from the Sloan Consortium. http://sloan-c.org/publications/survey/pdf/K-12_Online_Learning.pdf

Rasmussen College. (2011, May 1). The evolution of online learning technologies. Column Five Media. Retrieved December 2, 2013, from http://www.rasmussen.edu/student-life/blogs/online-learning/evolution-of-online-learning-technologies/

Robelen, E. (2007). E-Learning Curve. Education Week, 26 , 34-36. Retrieved September 25, 2007 from EBCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=24586017&site=ehost-live

Rohland-Heinrich, N. & Jensen, B. (2007). Library resources: A critical component to online learning. MultiMedia & Internet@Schools, 14 , pp. 8-12. Retrieved May 31, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24485559&site=ehost-live

Thane, P. (2007, July). Expanding education: Virtual learning environment. Personal Computer World, 30, 54–56.

Tucker, Bill. (2007, June). Laboratories of reform: Virtual high schools and innovation in public education. Education Sector Reports. Retrieved December 2, 2013, from http://heartland.org/sites/all/modules/custom/heartland%5Fmigration/files/pdfs/28154.pdf

Unsworth, J. M. (2004). The next wave: Liberation technology. The Chronicle of Higher Education, The Chronicle Review, pp. B16-B22. Retrieved June 1, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=12150531&site=ehost-live

US Census Bureau (2007). The 2007 statistical abstract: 1143 - households with computers and Internet access: 1998 and 2003. Retrieved May 27, 2007 from the U.S. Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/information_communications/internet_access_and_usage/

US Census Bureau. (2013) Computer and Internet use in the United States: Population characteristics. Retrieved December 21, 2013, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p20-569.pdf

US Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics. (2010). Teachers’ use of educational technology in US public schools: 2009. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=46

Wang, Q. & Woo, H.L. (March 2007). Comparing asynchronous online discussions and face-to-face discussions in a classroom setting. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38 , pp. 272-286. Retrieved May 30, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24090288&site=ehost-live

Warschauer, Mark. (2010, October 26). New reports on technology in US schools: The changing divide. Papyrus News. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from http://papyrusnews.com/2010/10/26/new-reports-on-technology-in-us-schools-the-changing-divide/

Watson, J., & Ryan, J. (2006). Keeping pace with K - 12 online learning: A review of state-level policy and practice, 2006. Retrieved May 28, 2007 from the North American Council for Online Learning. www.nacol.org/docs/Keeping%20Pace%20with%20K12%20Online%20Learning%202006.pdf

Wells, J., & Lewis, M. (2006). Internet access in U.S. public schools and classrooms: 1994-2005. National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved May 27, 2007 from the National Center for Education Statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2007020

Wright, L., Zyto, S., Karger, D. R., & Newman, D. L. (2013). Online reading informs classroom instruction and promotes collaborative learning. Journal of College Science Teaching, 43, 44–53. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=91713431

Suggested Reading

Bofill, L. (2013). Constructivism and collaboration using web 2.0 technology. Journal of Applied Learning Technology, 3, 31–37. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90043861

Carr-Chellman, A.A., ed. (2006). Global perspectives on e-learning: Rhetoric and reality. Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Kunvits, J., & Kurvits, M. (2013). High school students' acquisition of knowledge and skills through web-based collaboration. International Journal for Technology in Mathematics Education, 20, 95–102. Retrieved December 13, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90670333

Levy, Y. (2005). Assessing the value of e-learning systems. Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.

Ke, F. & Carr-Chellman, A. A. (2006). (The) solitary learner in online collaborative learning. Quarterly Review of Distance Education 7 , pp. 249-265. Available from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=22941928&site=ehost-live

Richardson, W. (2007). The seven C's of learning. District Administration,43 , p. 97. Available from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24340056&site=ehost-live

Sturgeon, J. (2007). Creating an effective virtual school program. District Administration 43 , pp. 42-48. Available from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24340016&site=ehost-live