Automobile technology

Efforts to refine or replace automotive internal combustion engines are immensely important for preventing further damage to the atmosphere. Advances in construction materials, increased use of electronic sensors, and strategies for reducing size and weight are also important.

Background

Although cars with steam engines were common in the early twentieth century and a few electric cars were produced, the internal combustion engine became the dominant means of powering automobiles after ignition systems were refined. Large vehicles such as the Cadillac became iconic symbols of prosperity, but as early as the late 1950s, American consumers and manufacturers became interested in the advantages of smaller cars, leading to the success of the American Motors Corporation’s Rambler and Ford’s Mustang.

In the second half of the twentieth century, efforts to limit the negative consequences of internal combustion engines focused on controlling the amount of toxins in their emissions. After the oil crisis of 1973, Japanese and European automakers aggressively marketed small cars that required less fuel than larger automobiles. In the United States, the use of unleaded gasoline and catalytic converters was mandated in the last decades of the twentieth century in order to reduce air pollution.

Larger cars returned to popularity after oil prices stabilized, but tightening emissions standards, increasing concern about the environment, and further price fluctuations eventually led to even smaller cars being produced. Swiss watch manufacturer Swatch originated the idea of the extremely compact “smart car.” In India, the Tata Motor Company’s Nano, introduced in 2009, economized by reducing both its size and the number of parts. It used only three nuts on the wheels and one windshield wiper, and it was glued together rather than welded.

Flexible-Fuel and Alternative-Fuel Engines

The design of flexible-fuel engines has given more choices to consumers. In Brazil, in response to the government’s ethanol requirements, the introduction of the Volkswagen Gol, GM’s Chevrolet Celta, and others has helped transform that nation’s consumption patterns. The number of flexible-fuel vehicles in Brazil, where ethanol is made from sugarcane, rose to 7 million by 2009. In the United States, where agricultural land is more scarce and ethanol is made from corn, many engines are not capable of running on mixtures with high ethanol content, and colder weather could lead to ignition problems. Modern flexible-fuel engines have electronic sensors to detect fuel content and are able to change valve timing, cylinder pressure, fuel injection, and other functions automatically.

The search for new engine technologies has also been a focus for entrepreneurs, such as Johnathan Goodwin, whose company H-Line Conversions specializes in converting the engines of large vehicles such as Hummers and vintage Cadillacs so they can run on biodiesel fuel. His expensive vehicles have been popular with celebrities. Manufacturers have also experimented with the use of hydrogen in internal combustion engines and in fuel cells, but because existing methods of processing hydrogen consume so much energy, it is generally thought to be an impractical automobile fuel.

Beyond the Combustion Engine

Although the technology is older than combustion engines and was initially more popular, electric cars were sidelined by gasoline-powered vehicles from the 1920s through the twentieth century. Electric cars were cleaner, quieter, and simpler, but they were also more expensive and slower. Their batteries required recharging, which limited the distances they could travel. In the 1990s, electric cars were revived in response to environmental demands. Between 1997 and 1999, the major automakers introduced several all-electric cars in California. These included GM’s EV1 and S-10 electric pickup, Honda’s EV Plus, a Ford Ranger pickup, and Toyota’s RAV4 EV. However, these models were all discontinued. It was difficult to reverse the petroleum trend and restructure the interdependent automobile and fuel industries. The lack of a supportive infrastructure (such as sufficient recharging stations equivalent to gas stations) also remained a problem.

To circumvent these problems, the hybrid vehicle was developed. Such vehicles could supplement the electric power they drew from batteries with a gasoline-burning engine for long distances, thus achieving greater fuel economy and power with the combined technologies than either could deliver alone. The first hybrid electric automobile in the U.S. mass market was Honda’s two-door Insight, introduced in 1999. In 2000, Toyota debuted the Toyota Prius, the first hybrid four-door sedan, and the Honda Civic Hybrid followed in 2002. All major automobile manufacturers developed hybrid vehicles. Amid the high gas prices of 2008, hybrids were in demand, especially the industry-leading Toyota Prius. However, by April, 2009, lower gas prices and a worldwide sales slump escalated competition. Honda’s new, lower-priced Insight challenged the Prius. Other new models included the Mercury Milan and Ford Fusion hybrid sedans.

Despite the slow-developing market for hybrid and electric vehicles, the potential of such vehicles remained evident. By the 2020s, electronic vehicles were recognized as the future of the automobile industry. Both consumer demand and government efforts to contain Greenhouse gas emissions drove this trend. Despite both, the numbers of consumer electronic vehicles continued to lag behind those of their combustion counterparts. Given the large-scale adaptations and technological advancements required by automakers, challenges had become apparent. These included the availability of required materials for automobile batteries, complex supply chains, and the need for charging infrastructure. Nonetheless, for advocates of electronic vehicles, the trends were encouraging. Most global automobile manufacturers had committed to introducing new lines of electronic vehicles. Car makers such as General Motors announced plans to exclusively build electric vehicles by 2035. The state government of California announced it would mandate all vehicles sold in its borders to be electric or hybrid by the the same year. One projection is that by 2029 electric vehicles may total roughly a third of markets in North America and a quarter of all global markets.

Because all-electric and hybrid vehicles can be charged by solar and wind sources, as well as by plugging into power grids, they are valued for their potential to combat global warming. The most popular all-electric car at the beginning of the twenty-first century was the REVA, a three-door car produced in India. Additional manufacturers such as Tesla Motors have entered the market, and sales are increasing worldwide. Electric and hybrid cars are also taking advantage of new advances in chassis construction, introducing lighter but strong materials as an alternative to steel.

Context

The rapid changes in the automobile industry and the diversity of automotive technologies at the beginning of the twenty-first century herald a period of intense competition and experimentation, in contrast to the massive standardization characteristic of the late twentieth century. The move away from fossil fuels and toward smaller vehicles contributes significantly to efforts in fighting anthropogenic global climate change.

Key Concepts

• electric cars: automobiles that run completely on electricity, without the need to burn fuels
• flexible (flex) fuel: a technology that allows vehicles to burn more than one type of fuel in the same engine
• hybrid vehicles: automobiles that run on more than one power source, such as electric batteries and fuel-burning engines
• hydrogen engines: engines that run on hydrogen, based either on fuel cells that oxidize the hydrogen or on hydrogen combustion
• internal combustion engines: engines that burn fuel in a chamber to generate force

Bibliography

Bethscheider-Kieser, Ulrich. Green Designed Future Cars: Bio Fuel, Hybrid, Electrical, Hydrogen, Fuel Economy in All Sizes and Shapes. Los Angeles: Fusion, 2008. Print.

Blume, David, and Michael Winks. Alcohol Can Be a Gas! Fueling an Ethanol Revolution for the Twenty-first Century. Santa Cruz: Intl Inst for Ecological Agriculture, 2007. Print.

Carson, Lain, and Vijay Vaitheeswaran. Zoom: The Global Race to Fuel the Car of the Future. New York: Twelve, 2007. Print.

Clemens, Kevin. The Crooked Mile: Through Peak Oil, Biofuels, Hybrid Cars, and Global Climate Change to Reach a Brighter Future. Lake Elmo: Demontreville, 2009. Print.

Fuhs, Allen. Hybrid Vehicles and the Future of Personal Transportation. Boca Raton: CRC, 2009. Print.

"Global EV Outlook 2022: Securing Supplies for an Electric Future."International Energy Agency, May 2022, iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/e0d2081d-487d-4818-8c59-69b638969f9e/GlobalElectricVehicleOutlook2022.pdf. Accessed 16 Jan. 2023.

Hasegawa, Yozo, and Tony Kimm. Clean Car Wars: How Honda and Toyota Are Winning the Battle of the Eco-friendly Autos. Singapore: Wiley, 2008. Print.

Sperling, Daniel, and Deborah Gordon. Two Billion Cars: Driving Toward Sustainability. New York: Oxford UP, 2009. Print.

White, Joseph. "Electric vehicle production set to surge in 2023 despite low sales." Rueters, 15 Dec. 2022, www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/electric-vehicles-confront-leap-mass-market-2022-12-15. Accessed 16 Jan. 2023.

'Yergin, Daniel. "The Major Problems Blocking America’s Electric Car Future." Politico, 31 Aug 2021. www.politico.com/news/magazine/2021/08/31/biden-electric-vehicles-problems-yergin-507599. Accessed 16 Jan. 2023.