Environmental Biotechnology

Summary

Environmental biotechnology, also known as biotechnical pollution control, is a rapidly developing science that uses biological resources to protect and restore the environment. It has significant implications and applications in both the prevention of air, soil, and water pollution and the restoration of contaminated environments.

Definition and Basic Principles

Environmental biotechnology is a multidisciplinary science, a synthesis of environmental engineering, biochemistry, and microbiology. Those involved in environmental biotechnology generally concentrate on the development, application, adaptation, and management of biological systems and organisms to repair and prevent environmental damage caused by pollution and on the advancement of green technologies and sustainable development. Fundamentally, environmental biotechnology is the study of how microorganisms, plants, and their enzymes can assist in the restoration, remediation, preservation, and sustainable use of the world's natural environment. The primary role of environmental biotechnologists is to create a better balance between human development and the natural environment.

All fields of biotechnology have seen rapid growth and progress in the 1990s and 2000s. The field of environmental biotechnology, in particular, has benefited from advancements in genetic engineering and modern microbiological concepts, which offer both traditional and innovative solutions to different forms of contamination occurring in different mediums (soil, water, and air).

Background and History

The term “biotechnology” was being used as early as 1919 but did not occur frequently in scientific literature until the 1960s and 1970s, with the publication of the Journal of Biotechnology. Although the use of biotechnology within the medical and agricultural industry can be traced back many years, the purposeful use of biotechnology to mitigate environmental issues has a much shorter history.

Although people were familiar with the concept of biotechnology, for the most part, efforts were focused on the medical and agricultural industries. The arrival of the Industrial Revolution, however, rapidly altered and influenced the environment through the release of toxic pollutants into the waterways and soil. As people became wealthier, the demand for goods grew, and with the rise in industrial and agricultural production came the increase in the impact on the environment. Although the concept of using natural degradation processes was not new—for many years, communities had composted and relied on natural processes and microbes in the breakdown and treatment of sewage—environmental biotechnology was not yet considered a science.

In the 1960s, however, chemical pollution and its adverse effects came under significant public scrutiny. One of the landmark cases involved the chemical dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT), which was widely used as a pesticide but later was found to seriously affect bird populations and to cause cancer in humans. Other cases of chemical pollution and its adverse effects on people and the environment were becoming known, including mercury poisoning in Japan, Agent Orange in Vietnam, industrial sludge in the United States, and the devastating effects of oil spills. By the 1970s, it had become clear that the environment was becoming sullied and that contaminants were adversely affecting people. Concern regarding the environment led to the development of many laws and regulations in both developed and developing countries regarding the proper management of waste and pollution control. It was in the light of this political and social awareness that the field of environmental biotechnology emerged. Although environmental biotechnology originally focused on the treatment of wastewater, the field expanded to include areas of study such as soil contamination, solid-waste treatment, and air purification methods.

In 1992, during the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, environmental biotechnology was recognized and embraced as a crucial tool for both repairing and preventing environmental and health issues caused by humans. Since this conference, the field of environmental biotechnology has advanced at a rapid rate and has grown to provide innovative approaches to the sustainable development and protection of the world's ecosystems.

How It Works

Traditional methods of waste removal, such as landfill and incineration, cannot cope with the sheer volume of waste created by human populations. This situation has increased the need to develop alternative environmentally sound treatments and techniques. Environmental biotechnology seeks to positively affect pollution control and waste management.

A rise in consumption since the 1990s has been accompanied by a corresponding increase in the release of pollutants into the environment. Some of these contaminants, particularly those that also are naturally occurring, can be digested, degraded, or removed from the soil and water through the action of microorganisms. However, some of these human-created pollutants rarely occur naturally, and the accumulation of such substances can have a serious ecological impact.

The use of biotechnology in the treatment of waste and pollution is not a new idea. For more than a century, many communities have relied on natural processes and microbes to break down and treat sewage. The fundamental aim of environmental biotechnology is to use organisms to control contamination and treat waste. In the process called bioremediation, microorganisms, including fungi and bacteria and their enzymes, are used to return a contaminated environment to its original condition. Naturally occurring biological degradation processes are purposely employed to remove contaminants from areas where they have been released. The use of such processes requires a solid scientific understanding of the contaminant, its impact, and the affected ecosystem.

The concept of environmental biotechnology depends on the notion that all living organisms, such as flora, fauna, bacteria, and fungi, consume nutrients for their survival and, in doing so, produce waste byproducts. Not all organisms require the same nutrients nor react in the same manner, however. Some organisms, such as certain bacteria and other microorganisms, flourish on chemicals and toxins that are actually poisonous or harmful to other organisms or ecosystems. The fact that some microorganisms and various strains of microbial species react differently to chemical toxins and environmental pollutants has advanced the concept of using genetic manipulation techniques.

Environmental biotechnology aims to provide a natural approach to tackling environmental issues, from identification of biohazards to restoration of industrial, agricultural, and natural areas affected by contamination. Central to the concept of environmental biotechnology is the ability to determine which contaminants are present, for how long, and in what quantity, and what recovery method is applicable. There are four basic concepts and approaches in the field of environmental biotechnology: bioremediation, prevention, detection and monitoring, and genetic engineering.

Applications and Products

Environmental pollution can be a legacy of former industrial practices or a product of unsustainable modern practices. One of the most serious environmental issues facing the world in the twenty-first century is the production of very large quantities of waste, the majority of which becomes landfill. Industrialized nations also produce significant quantities of chemicals that often end up in the soil and water. Environmental biotechnology seeks ways to combat the escalating ecological problems associated with such pollution and waste. Technologies that have been developed and implemented include bioremediation of water and soil, biomonitoring using biosensors and bioassays, and bioprocessing.

Bioremediation. Bioremediation is usually classified as either in situ (onsite) or ex situ (offsite). In situ bioremediation entails treating the contamination in place and relies on the ability of the microorganisms to metabolize or remove the contaminants inside the naturally occurring system; ex situ remediation entails the polluted material being removed from the contaminated site and treated elsewhere and relies on some form of artificial engineering and input. The process of bioremediation can occur naturally or be encouraged through artificial stimulus. The process of attenuation occurs under natural conditions and incorporates the normal chemical, biological, and physical processes, such as aerobic and anaerobic degradation, that eliminate or reduce soil and water contaminants.

Biostimulation and Bioaugmentation. Biostimulation is a form of bioremediation in which the natural processes of degradation are encouraged through the introduction of certain stimuli, such as nutrients and additional substrates. Bioaugmentation is a form of bioremediation that involves increasing the activity of the microorganisms that assist in pollutant reduction or augmenting existing yet insufficient populations of microorganisms. Bioenrichment is another form of bioremediation that involves adding nutrients or oxygen to environments to increase the breakdown of contaminants.

Biodetectors. Biodetectors such as bioassays and biosensors are used to monitor, assess, and analyze biological material, and provide important information and data about the effects and concentration of pollutants in the natural environment. Bioassays are procedures or experiments in which the quantity of a contaminant is estimated by measuring its effect on living organisms. Although they can be relatively slow and expensive, they are essential for the assessment and prediction of real and potential effects of pollution on the natural environment.

Biosensors are devices that detect and measure minute amounts of or changes in concentration of chemical substances within an environmental area and translate that information into data. Because of their ability to detect even tiny quantities of targeted chemicals with greater speed and at less cost than bioassays, biosensors have become important tools for the monitoring and control of pollution levels, both before and after bioremediation measures are implemented.

Bioprocessing. Bioprocessing is a process that uses living cells or organisms to produce specific outcomes. Communities of microbial organisms perform a comprehensive range of bioprocesses within the natural environment, which can be exploited to benefit both the environment and industry. Bioprocesses used in environmental biotechnology include microbial enhanced oil recovery (MEOR), biological treatments of polluted air, biodesulfurization, conversion of pollutants into useful products such as fertilizers and green energy, and microbial exploration technology. Other notable bioprocesses include bioelectrochemical systems (BES) that uses a biofilm catalyst for the production of fuel from biodegradable organic matter.

Biofilm Control. Biofilms, often called slime, occur on the surface of aqueous environments and are caused by a complex accumulation of microorganisms. Biofilms are classified as beneficial, neutral, or harmful because they are frequently associated with odors, infections, fouling, and corrosion but can be beneficial under some circumstances, such as wastewater treatment. Harmful biofilms can be controlled using preventative measures, like modifying surface properties of substances prone to biofilm development or eradicating methods using chemicals or physical extraction techniques.

Genetic Engineering and Manipulation. The advancement of genetics and genetic manipulation has had significant impact on environmental biotechnology. Research in molecular genetics has provided novel techniques for the detection and degradation of contaminants through the manipulation and enhancement of the microbes' ability to adapt themselves genetically to different pollutants. The ecologically useful and improved organisms are classified as genetically engineered microbes (GEM).

Biomining. Metals can be extracted from their ores via microbial bioleaching of base metals and bio-oxidation of gold. Efficiency gains have been made in biomining using GEMs, which are also considered more environmentally friendly than traditional methods of ore extraction.

Phytoremediation. Phytoremediation is an environmental restoration process that uses plants and microorganisms to degrade hazardous chemicals and heavy metals from industrial effluent that pollute soils. Scientists continue to uncover combinations of plants and pollutants that effectively support phytoremediation. Poplar trees have shown exceptional abilities to remove volatile organic compounds like lead from the soil. Sunflowers effectively eliminate arsenic and the alkaline metals strontium and cesium.

Wastewater Treatment. Microorganisms are used in sewage treatment plants to degrade pollutants such as organic matter present in industrial and agricultural wastewater at low cost and with minimal impact on the environment.

Biobleaching. This applies biological catalysts such as enzymes to various industrial processes. Microorganisms used in industrial bleaching processes are environmentally friendly due to their low reliance on chemicals. Xylanase enzymes used in the biobleaching process reduce the cost in the paper and pulp industry by replacing the chemical bleaching agent chlorine. The process is also used in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries.

Bioplastics. Plastic is one of the major threats to the environment due to its non-biodegradable nature and its production from nonrenewable resources. Bioplastic is biodegradable plastic produced from natural substances and organic waste. It reduces environmental pollution by reducing the dependence on plastics made from petrochemicals.

Careers and Course Work

Students who wish to pursue a career in environmental biotechnology can have a degree in several fields, including environmental science, chemistry, microbiology, and biomolecular engineering. Many universities provide undergraduate and postgraduate degrees in environmental biotechnology. Upon course completion, students should have a solid understanding of ecological and contamination processes as well as the theories and technologies used in environmental biotechnology to mitigate environmental damage.

Environmental biotechnology graduates can pursue such careers as environmental and bioengineering consultants, water recycling and water resource managers in the private sector, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), specialized government organizations and agencies, and university researchers and professors.

Social Context and Future Prospects

In the early twenty-first century, the world's increasing population continued increasing the amount of pollution reaching the land, water, and atmosphere. Many natural ecosystems struggled to cope with the remnants of old toxic contamination and the influx of new contamination. Pollution's ecological, social, and economic costs are immeasurable, and environmental recovery is one of the global community's most important problems.

Conventional biotechnology processes and techniques have relied on end-of-pipe technologies—that is, treatment of waste and pollution that has already contaminated the air, soil, or water. Although such methods are necessary, particularly in the remediation of existing pollution, many environmental biotechnologists think that end-of-pipe methods should be regarded as last-resort efforts rather than preferred methods. As such, environmental biotechnology is moving from first-generation technology based on naturally occurring processes and microorganisms to second-generation technology based on high-tech anthropomorphic enhancement and manipulation of natural processes and microorganisms.

The future of environmental biotechnology lies in following an integrated environmental protection approach, with the fundamental goal being to control pollution before it enters the natural ecosystem and to recover already polluted areas; for instance, efforts to create biodegradable, compostable polymers as substitutes for other plastics fits into such an approach. An essential step in this goal is to develop controls and pass legislation to reduce the incidence of contamination. However, many researchers believe that the future of environmental engineering also will be closely aligned with the advancement and application of molecular and genetic methods. Decreasing or mitigating greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere is vital to global health, so research in environmental biotechnology focuses on biological organisms and processes that may help, such as methanotrophs.

Environmental biotechnology can mitigate waste's ecological impacts and increasingly transform waste into usable materials. For instance, it can recover metals like copper from mine tailings and utilize methane produced in landfills. Additionally, human space travel may increasingly rely on environmental biotechnological applications of methanogenic bacteria to decompose organic waste and photosynthetic microbes or methanotrophs for food production. Finally, environmental engineering was instrumental in protecting people from COVID-19 infections. Water treatment technologies, waste management, and environmental disinfection technologies helped prevent the spread of the virus.

The field is ever expanding as biochemistry, microbiology, genetic engineering, and chemical technologies intersect and increase environmental biotechnology's ability to improve human life, prevent Earth's deterioration, and drive global economies. As environmental biotechnology solutions and applications become more complex, government agencies must regulate them appropriately. Researchers must also address the ethical, social, and safety concerns related to environmental biotechnologies, such as the creation of transgenic organisms and their use in the natural world.

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