Instrumentation

In technology, instrumentation is the development and use of accurate measuring equipment. Such equipment must be precise and consistent. Instrumentation ranges from relatively common applications, such as blood pressure cuffs, to complex processes, such as devices used to analyze chemicals. Such devices may provide measurements using a gauge, a scale, a thermometer, or other means, including digital readouts.

Instrumentation has an ancient history, beginning with devices used to navigate and study the stars—two areas in which instrumentation remains paramount. It developed rapidly with the advent of the Industrial Revolution, when precision in manufacturing products became essential. During the twentieth century, instrumentation changed considerably with the development of computerization. Aviation and the space program, among other fields, require precise and advanced instrumentation.

Background

The oldest-known instrument is the armillary sphere, which was common in ancient China, Greece, and the Islamic Empire. This device was primarily used by astronomers. It consists of a series of rings showing the locations of important features of the skies. Greek astronomer Eratosthenes is credited with inventing it about 255 BCE. Sailors used the armillary sphere and a related device, the astrolabe, to navigate on the seas.

The astrolabe was developed and refined shortly thereafter. Astrolabes can be used to tell time (day or night); to time sunrise, sunset, and other celestial events; and, in Islamic societies, to determine the direction of Mecca and prayer times. Thousands of years later, sailors, hikers, astronomers, and others continue to rely on astrolabes in their daily lives. The compass, another instrument developed centuries ago to aid in navigation on the oceans, also remains in use.

One of the first instruments to take control of a machine was developed during the seventeenth century by Dutch inventor and alchemist Cornelius Drebbel. Drebbel created a feedback controller, a basic thermostat, for a furnace. He created this oven to further his alchemical pursuits, which included attempts to turn base metals into gold. Drebbel's thermostat consisted of an L-shaped glass tube. The bottom contained alcohol, which expanded when heated. The expansion of the alcohol pushed up a layer of mercury, which floated on top of the alcohol. In turn, this raised a rod that pressed a lever arm. The arm constantly adjusted the vent opening on the furnace, which changed the draft that fed the fire and controlled the flames. Drebbel's work directly influenced the next stage of human invention, the Industrial Revolution.

The Industrial Revolution was largely powered by steam. Previously, industrial operations relied on wind or water power, which limited the locations where they could operate. James Watt and other eighteenth-century scientists discovered how to channel steam energy and use it to operate machinery. Pressure regulators were needed to ensure that engines were safe. Instruments were developed to measure steam pressure to allow operators to know when sufficient pressure had built up and to maintain safe and effective levels. These steam engines were able to operate everywhere—trains, for example, were a major development of the Industrial Revolution and changed the world.

With industry came a greater need for precision in manufacturing. Devices such as the micrometer screw gauge were developed to precisely measure components to ensure that they would fit together. Industry continued to expand as electricity became more available. Like other forms of power generation, electricity required the development of new instruments to monitor output.

Topic Today

In science, microscopes and tools such as spectroscopes became widely used during the late twentieth century and into the twenty-first century. Medical science has grown to rely heavily on instrumentation, such as the sphygmomanometer to measure blood pressure and monitors to measure heart rate. Instrumentation helps medical staff provide care—for example, by dispensing medicine at a specific rate. Other examples include spirometers, which measure lung capacity; electroencephalograms, or EEGs, which record electrical activity of the brain; electrocardiography, which records electrical activity of the heart; and computerized axial tomography (CT or CAT scan), which records a series of X-ray images and uses computer processing to assemble cross-sectional views. Chemical analysis has become an important aspect of medical research and treatment, and chromatographs, pH sensors, and refractometers are among the many technological developments in use.

Instrumentation aids in maintaining human health and related public works systems. For example, turbidity meters help protect water supplies by accurately measuring particles in the water to ensure that it meets safety standards.

Computers require instrumentation both to monitor performance and find errors and to enable a host of other control and monitoring systems. The food processing industry, for example, relies on computer-controlled monitoring of moisture content, ingredient addition, temperature, cooking processes, and packaging. The timing of equipment must be exact to ensure that systems work cooperatively and efficiently. Industrial uses include monitoring energy usage to conserve resources and controlling waste materials to avoid polluting the environment. Instrumentation allows the people who operate the systems to control and quickly adjust when confronting problems.

Modern telescopes rely on instrumentation. These optical instruments gather and focus light, which is interpreted by various instruments depending on the information sought. Spectrographs, for example, separate light into a frequency spectrum. This allows researchers to study the wavelengths and analyze the light, such as the wavelengths of different stars.

From the earliest efforts of the space program, instrumentation was vital. Instruments on space vehicles were needed to collect data, including atmospheric information. A wide range of information was gathered to plan for future manned launches. Many readings taken on unmanned flights were required to ensure the safety of astronauts in the future by monitoring interior and exterior conditions, such as temperature and oxygen levels.

Instrumentation remains critical to industrial development. The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) has cited difficulties in implementing measuring techniques as one hindrance in developing countries that seek to establish global trade. One goal the organization has identified is the need for international calibration chains for precision manufacture.

Bibliography

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"History of the Astrolabe." Astrolabes.org, www.astrolabes.org/pages/history.htm. Accessed 23 Jan. 2017.

"Instrumentation." Space Telescope Science Institute, Dec. 2022, www.stsci.edu/hst/instrumentation. Accessed 3 Jan. 2023.

"Instruments: Telescopes Would Be Useless without Them." McDonald Observatory, HYPERLINK "https://mcdonaldobservatory.org/research/instruments" mcdonaldobservatory.org/research/instruments. Accessed 23 Jan. 2017.

Persson, Patrik. "Calibration of Measuring Equipment." Quality Magazine, 5 Dec. 2014, www.qualitymag.com/articles/92306-calibration-of-measuring-equipment. Accessed 23 Jan. 2017.

"Role of Measurement and Calibration in the Manufacture of Products for the Global Market." United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 2006, www.unido.org/uploads/tx‗templavoila/Role‗of‗measurement‗and‗calibration.pdf. Accessed 23 Jan. 2017.

Rosen, Jonathon. "The Vulgar Mechanic and His Magical Oven." Nautilus, 10 Apr. 2014, p://nautil.us/issue/12/feedback/the-vulgar-mechanic-and-his-magical-oven" nautil.us/issue/12/feedback/the-vulgar-mechanic-and-his-magical-oven. Accessed 23 Jan. 2017.

"Special Committee on Space Technology Report, 1958." National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 28 Oct. 1958, www.history.nasa.gov/report58.html. Accessed 23 Jan. 2017.

Whipps, Heather. "How the Steam Engine Changed the World." Live Science, 16 June 2008, www.livescience.com/2612-steam-engine-changed-world.html. Accessed 23 Jan. 2017.