Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is the national space agency of Japan, established in 2003 through the merger of three organizations: the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA), and the National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan (NAL). JAXA's roots in space exploration trace back to the 1950s, with milestones including the launch of Japan's first satellite in 1969 and significant contributions to the International Space Station (ISS), including the operational Japanese Experiment Module, Kibō, which has been active since 2008. JAXA collaborates extensively with other international space agencies, such as NASA, Roscosmos, and the European Space Agency, contributing to missions and technology development.
While primarily focused on peaceful space exploration, JAXA's role has evolved alongside Japan's changing defense policies, particularly after the enactment of the Basic Space Law in 2008, which permitted the use of space technologies for national defense. Additionally, JAXA has achieved notable successes in robotic missions, like the Hayabusa spacecraft series, which collected samples from asteroids. Despite facing some criticism regarding its militarization and partnership with the U.S., JAXA continues to advance its capabilities and international collaborations, positioning itself as a key player in global space exploration efforts.
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Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
The Japanese government established the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) as the country’s national air and space agency in 2003. However, the country’s efforts toward space travel began decades earlier in the 1950s. JAXA came into being from the merging of three independent organizations—the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA), and the National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan (NAL). Since its founding, JAXA has overseen the country’s space research and launched several missions. The agency also collaborates with other space agencies. JAXA works alongside the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Roscosmos of Russia, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) in the maintenance of the International Space Station (ISS). The Japanese Experiment Module of the ISS (JEM, also known as Kibō) became operational in 2008 and remained the largest ISS experiment module as of 2024.
Background
Japan began to experiment with rocket and experimental aircraft technology during World War II (1939–1945). The terms of Japan’s surrender in that conflict forced the country to suspend those efforts temporarily. Japan’s economic recovery proved a greater priority than space exploration in the years after the war. By the 1950s, academic and government groups had begun devoting resources toward space science. Researchers at the University of Tokyo began the work that led to the creation of ISAS in 1964. In 1955 the prime minister’s office established the National Aeronautical Laboratory (NAL, which became the National Aerospace Laboratory in 1963). These groups served as the primary organizations working in space research until the formation of NASDA in 1969.
Throughout the second half of the twentieth century, ISAS, NAL, and NASDA were largely devoted to research but also achieved milestones in rocket and satellite technology. International treaties and domestic laws limited the development and exchange of these technologies. Agreements made with the United States regarding the transfer of technology both helped and hindered the development of Japan’s space program.
Japan supported several efforts by the United Nations (UN) to promote peace in space. For example, it attached itself to the 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (commonly referred to as the Outer Space Treaty); 1968’s Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space (commonly referred to as the Rescue Agreement); and 1975’s Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (commonly referred to as the Registration Convention).
Through ISAS, Japan launched its first satellite in 1969. In the 1970s and 1980s, efforts continued to focus on launcher technologies and satellite communication capabilities, as well as launch vehicle development. Japan joined efforts to establish an international space station with Europe, Canada, and the United States in 1985, and Russia agreed to participate in 1993. In 1990, journalist Toyohiro Akiyama (1942–) earned the distinction of becoming the first Japanese person in space when he flew to Russia’s Space Station Mir. Two years later, NASDA astronaut Mamoru Mohri (1948–) became the first member of an official Japanese space program to go into space when he flew aboard NASA’s Space Shuttle Endeavor. The first components of the ISS launched in November 1998. Astronaut Koichi Wakata (1963–) joined its assembly in 2000 as the first Japanese representative. In 2014, Wakata became the first Japanese person to serve as commander of the ISS.
Overview
The Japanese government consolidated its three space organizations into JAXA in 2003. Each group had contributed significantly to the country’s efforts at space exploration, with ISAS and NAL developing technology and NASDA maintaining technology and developing the astronaut program. Each organization had contributed to international space flights, including the creation of the ISS. The consolidation of these groups enabled Japan to move forward with its domestic program and expand its participation in global space efforts. In 2005, Souchi Noguchi (1965–) became the first astronaut representing JAXA to go to space when he participated in a NASA mission aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery. Wakata became the first Japanese astronaut to begin a long-duration stay aboard the ISS in 2009. During Wakata’s final long-duration stay in 2014, he served as station commander. Souchi, Wakata, and other JAXA astronauts have also joined missions to the ISS aboard spacecraft launched by the private company SpaceX. As of 2023, JAXA had yet to send a crewed spaceflight independent of other countries’ space agencies or private companies. However, the agency’s capabilities have steadily expanded since its founding.
Several of the agency’s achievements have focused on robotic missions. In its first year, JAXA launched Hayabusa, a robotic spacecraft designed to obtain samples from asteroids. The craft made its first landing in 2005 and returned to Earth in 2010. The mission was followed by Hayabusa2, which left Earth in 2014 with a similar sample-gathering mission and returned in 2020. Both spacecraft carried rover vehicles that launched with varying degrees of success. In 2007, the agency launched Kayuga, a robotic spacecraft that collected data and released satellites as it orbited the moon for more than a year.
Despite JAXA’s contributions to space science, the program’s development has attracted some critics. JAXA was originally chartered for peaceful missions only. However, in 2008 Japan passed the Basic Space Law allowing for space technologies to be used in national defense. The allowances were expanded in 2012 when lawmakers allowed coordination between JAXA and the Ministry of Defense. The space program became further militarized with the creation of the Space Operations Squadron in 2020.
Throughout much of its history, Japan’s space program has been closely tied to the United States. Those relations have further solidified through treaties including the Artemis Accords (international agreement to cooperate on crewed lunar missions) in 2020 and the Framework Agreement for Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, for Peaceful Purposes (an updated take on the Outer Space Treaty of 1967) in 2023. Some speculated this relationship would be seen as a threat by Russia and China, particularly in light of the increased potential for militarization.
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