Military Sciences and Combat Engineering

Summary

Military sciences are scientific, engineering, and technical activities undertaken by those who identify, design, and produce innovative weapons, including such items as improved rifles for individual fighters and larger strategic weapons such as laser-guided missiles; equipment, ranging from improved clothing and night-vision goggles to armored tanks; and communications devices for use in warfare. Combat engineering includes activities such as building bridges, harbors, roads, temporary shelters, or improvised airfields used to assist combat troops, or removing obstacles from the battlefield.

Definition and Basic Principles

The term “military sciences” is used to designate the broad scope of activities undertaken to develop weapons, weapons systems, and equipment for the military. This broad category includes basic research on the components used in fabrication of materials for weapons or weapons systems, including research in ballistics; design of new computers, programs, or electronic devices; engineering to fabricate armaments and ordnance, battlefield gear, or support equipment; and systems for transitioning new technologies and equipment into use by fighting forces.

“Combat engineering” is a term that describes the activities of military units that support the armed forces by performing a number of engineering functions in or near the battlefield. Many of these, such as bridge building, road building, and construction of temporary fortifications and camps for forces in the field, are handled improvisationally with materials on hand or brought into the theater of operations by military forces. By contrast, some military personnel engage in activities more akin to civil engineering. This may involve construction of facilities at permanent bases, or in the case of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, projects that control the rivers and lakes within the boundaries of the United States.

It is important to distinguish “military sciences” from the closely related term, “military science.” The latter refers to the broader study of war as an art and science and encompasses the study of tactics, strategy, and leadership.

Background and History

Technology has played an important role in the conduct of warfare since the dawn of civilization, when people first began to assemble crude weapons from natural materials. The discovery of techniques to forge metals led to improvements in weaponry, as bronze and then iron weapons made soldiers and sailors more effective fighters. The history of warfare, therefore, is inseparable from the history of technological advances that have influenced the development of weapons, equipment, fortifications, transportation, and logistics. At times, military sciences have simply been efforts to adapt existing technologies for military use; at other times, however, systematic efforts have been undertaken to design weapons of war or develop countermeasures to protect combatants and civilian populations.

It has become commonplace to describe the various epochs in the history of warfare as occurring in a series of “revolutions in military affairs,” driven by advances in technology that brought about paradigmatic shifts in the conduct of warfare. Ways of waging war before the eleventh century did not change radically. Handheld weapons permitted armies to clash on the battlefield. Siege warfare was also commonplace, as invaders would surround cities and on occasion attempt to breach fortified walls. Engineers played a key role in both defensive and offensive operations, designing ever-more sophisticated fortifications from earth and stone to thwart enemy penetrations into cities (and later castles) and creating siege engines such as catapults for launching missiles over these ramparts or climbing devices for scaling them. The invention of the bow allowed armies to attack enemies from some distance. Mounted soldiers were used in limited fashion in open terrain. Shields and pikes to protect soldiers organized into tight battlefield formation were among the primary defensive weapons fashioned during these centuries. In naval battles, ships would get close with each other, grappling hooks would be tossed to secure the two vessels, and sailors would board with weapons similar to those used by infantry. Some ships carried mechanisms that allowed them to launch missiles such as fire grenades, but most naval warfare was conducted at close quarters.

The invention of gunpowder in the eleventh century revolutionized warfare around the globe. By the fourteenth century nations had learned to use the power of chemical explosions to launch projectiles (bullets, mortar, and artillery shells) that traveled greater distances and caused substantially more damage than muscle- or mechanically powered projectiles. Over the next four centuries, scientists devised more effective mixtures of chemical substances that allowed for controlled explosions, while engineers and gunsmiths designed more accurate and devastating weapons. By the eighteenth century, metallurgists had discovered ways to make artillery pieces lighter while improving their power and accuracy. Naval engineers adapted field artillery pieces for use aboard ships, providing navies new capabilities to attack other ships and provide fire support to forces onshore.

Another revolution in military sciences and engineering occurred in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Industrial-age technology led to numerous advances in military technology. The development of processes to standardize weapons production led to significant efficiencies in arming soldiers, since spare parts could be carried with troops and replaced easily. Innovations such as the invention of rifled barrels, breech-loading and repeating rifles, and the machine gun, gave armies more firepower. Though not developed specifically for military operations, rail transportation allowed troops to be deployed at greater distances in a shorter time. Advances in ship design led to the launch of ironclad warships capable of carrying cannons that could launch massive projectiles toward land-based targets from miles at sea. Clothing manufacturers and suppliers turned out gear that was more durable and better suited to soldiers' and sailors' needs.

During this time, chemists perfected a number of formulas for poisonous gases, which were deployed with devastating results during World War I. In response, protective gear was developed to counter the effects of the gas. Two additional inventions designed for peaceful purposes were quickly adapted for military use: the airplane and electronic communications devices. Planes gave field commanders opportunities for better surveillance and eventually provided platforms for delivering more sophisticated bombs over distant targets, or dropping troops behind enemy lines. Between World War I and II, naval engineers designed aircraft carriers that allowed navies to bring air power far from shore to attack enemy targets or defend friendly forces. World War II also saw the effective employment of electronic warfare, as both the Allied and Axis nations used newly created devices to intercept enemy communications, transmit messages over long distances, detect targets, or conduct countermeasures to neutralize the enemy's electronic devices.

The end of World War II saw the dawn of yet another revolution in military affairs: the introduction of atomic power into military conflict. This weapon of mass destruction allowed one combatant to inflict extensive damage on the enemy with minimal involvement of troops. The development of the atomic bomb was one of the great scientific achievements of the twentieth century, even if its deployment were morally questionable. Teams of physicists and engineers managed to harness the power of the atom to generate hitherto unseen explosive power. Atomic weapons became the signature armament of the ensuing Cold War between the Western allies and the Soviet Union. Even though no nuclear weapons were used in conflict, the threat they posed served to shape both military and political policy for four decades. Additionally, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) became an international concern during the second half of the twentieth century, as more stable countries grew fearful that such weapons might fall into the hands of fanatics and be used as instruments of terror. At the same time, however, nuclear-powered engines installed in surface ships and submarines gave naval vessels the ability to stay at sea for months without making port calls.

Beginning in the last decades of the twentieth century, the nature of warfare changed again with the introduction of sophisticated computer-based weapons systems, surveillance devices, and command-and-control networks. Laser-guided weapons, “smart bombs,” and missiles capable of being guided to within ten meters of a target provided battlefield commanders more effective ways to hit enemy targets with minimal collateral damage. New electronic devices permitted more sophisticated methods of gathering and processing intelligence, giving commanders better real-time data on which to base decisions. The growing presence of computers on the battlefield, networked to ones far away from the front lines, permitted commanders on both sides of a conflict to engage in network-centric war: Real-time exchange of information allowed combatants to gather intelligence and exploit weaknesses in an enemy's defenses. At the same time, weaker countries or groups engaged in asymmetric warfare often resorted to weapons using more primitive technology that could often produce casualties on combatants and civilians, often randomly, thereby creating terror among populations engaged in or living within the zone of conflict.

How It Works

With few exceptions, the application of scientific and engineering work for military purposes is carried out under the direction of a nation's defense agency. That is not to say, however, that all research and development (R&D) is performed by government employees at state-owned facilities. It is common for socialist nations or totalitarian regimes to control the entire process, while democracies tend to follow the pattern used in the United States, where R&D is carried out through a complex arrangement that involves government agencies, private industry, and academic institutions.

The United States Department of Defense has an elaborate organization to oversee research and development. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) sponsors basic scientific research (focusing on physics and chemistry) and applied research that shows promise of producing new breakthroughs in designing military weaponry and equipment. The Army, Navy, and Air Force each has its own R&D agency, employing teams of scientists, engineers, and technicians to carry out projects funded through federal appropriations. Additionally, each agency engages in partnerships with private businesses to sponsor additional research and to underwrite engineering efforts to turn basic science into usable tools for the fighting forces. These agencies also control funding that can be used to support research at academic institutions across the country. While the military services direct much of the research, fabrication of end items—weapons and weapons systems, personal gear, and high-technology equipment such as radars and surveillance devices—is more often carried out by private industry.

Combat engineers are beneficiaries of the R&D that takes place within the various organizations and activities sponsored by the federal government. While the organization of combat engineering units varies by country, the operation of such units within the United States armed forces suggests how combat engineers make use of existing technologies and equipment to support operations in the field. Army combat engineers handle tasks such as constructing or repairing roadways and temporary facilities and assembling prefabricated bridges. In the Air Force, combat-engineering functions include constructing temporary airfields, repairing existing airstrips, constructing roads and revetments, and providing general engineering support to field commanders. Navy construction battalions (Seabees) typically build wharves and harbor facilities, airfields, field hospitals, roads, and bridges.

Applications and Products

Scientists and engineers engage in work to develop thousands of products for the military. Some are large, multimillion-dollar items such as aircraft carriers or supersonic planes; others may be small but of great importance to individual fighters, such as improved lenses for night-vision goggles. A brief outline of some of the major items used to conduct warfare in the twenty-first century suggests the scope and complexity of the work military scientists, engineers, and technicians are responsible for accomplishing.

Air Warfare. The design and construction of matériel for air warfare requires thousands of individual end items built using the latest technologies. At any time, a country like the United States is deploying new aircraft, maintaining older ones, and conducting research to create new planes that will be faster, lighter, and less susceptible to detection by the enemy. The composite materials developed by chemists, metallurgists, and engineers are often key components in the body designs of new planes, and many older ones are retrofitted to accommodate new equipment that enhances overall performance.

New weapons systems—missiles, bombs, and small-arms weapons such as machine guns—are designed to be carried on these platforms. Among those in use: air-to-air and air-to-surface missiles employing complex electronic guidance systems; bunker-buster bombs guided by laser systems or from satellites capable of penetrating as much as 20 feet of concrete; and “blackout” bombs that can knock out an enemy's electrical power grid.

The United States also builds and maintains satellites that provide secure voice and data transmission capability. Equipped with antijamming devices, these form the backbone of an elaborate satellite network that affords commanders from NATO countries a reliable system for worldwide command and control. Other satellites are used to gather intelligence and serve as navigation aids to troops on the ground or at sea. Significant research is ongoing to improve the capabilities of unmanned aircraft, which can be remotely controlled and flown over enemy territory to deliver ordnance on targets or gather intelligence.

Although unmanned aircraft have been used in aerial warfare since World War I, the twenty-first century has seen the implementation of armed drone warfare. The United States first used the remotely piloted, uncrewed aircraft in Afghanistan in 2001. Between 2008 and 2010, drones were used by the US military with increased frequency to combat global terrorism and were seen as a way to reduce fatalities incurred in ground wars. During the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the United States sent the Ukrainians drones with advanced capabilities. These included killer drones called Switchblades. Some of these drones weigh only about five pounds and have a range of 10 miles, while others are heavier and have a range of more than 40 miles.

Ground Warfare. The changing nature of the battlefield and an enemy's capabilities make it necessary for armies to develop and maintain a host of new equipment to transport soldiers to the combat zone, provide them mobility once there, protect them from enemy attack, and arm them with weapons that offer sufficient firepower to subdue the enemy from close or medium range. The major rolling stock of most armies consists of tanks, armored personnel carriers, and self-propelled artillery. However, trucks used to haul supplies and transport personnel are also key components in an army's ability to remain mobile, and these are often equipped with armor and various detection devices to protect soldiers from enemy mines or other exploding devices. The weaponry designed for use by soldiers on the battlefield typically includes rifles, sidearms, and grenades. Sophisticated guidance systems and devices aid artillerists in launching ordnance accurately.

Soldiers are also equipped with a number of protective devices such as body armor (often made from composite materials), protective masks (commonly called gas masks), helmets, and special clothing that makes them less detectable by enemies. An array of products have been designed to aid in command and control, including sophisticated radios and computer devices (often handheld). Individual equipment and supplies are often subject to extensive research and design as well, so that rations, clothing, and personal gear carried for hygiene and comfort are carefully fabricated and packaged to make them usable in the difficult environment produced by combat.

Naval Warfare. Navies sail ships of various sizes and functions in conducting war at sea. Each is a floating platform for a variety of weapons systems that can project power at an enemy's navy or at targets onshore. The United States Navy employs aircraft carriers, cruisers, destroyers, submarines, and frigates as its principal fighting ships; amphibious assault ships are used to carry U.S. Marines to combat zones. The Navy also has a fleet of supply ships, hospital ships, and other support vessels. These are all equipped with guidance and navigation systems used for maneuvering and fighting. Naval ships carry missiles that can be launched from the deck, carried into flight by naval aircraft, or launched by submarines from beneath the surface. Ships are outfitted with conventional weapons ranging from medium-size machine guns used for defense against enemy air attack to large naval guns that can fire shells for several miles at enemy ship formations or onshore targets. Ships carry substantial amounts of equipment for surveillance, supply, and maintenance, much of it specifically designed by military scientists and engineers to withstand the rigorous conditions at sea. Aircraft used aboard ship are designed for short takeoffs and landings and carry armaments similar to those used by the air force for offensive and defensive operations. As with ground forces, those aboard ships are outfitted with personal gear, much of it specially designed to protect them in battle and provide comfort and hygiene.

Combat Engineering. Combat engineers carry equipment similar to that used by civilian construction and demolition firms, much of it modified for the specific needs of working in a combat zone. These include carpenter's and other construction tools (hammers, brush cutters, vises, shovels, posthole diggers), an array of power tools, and generators built to withstand the incidental damage caused by use in rough terrain. Bulldozers, earth movers, front loaders, and similar construction equipment is standard for many engineer units. Engineers also employ breaching vehicles to remove man-made obstacles such as barbed-wire fences or mines. Some combat-engineering units are equipped with amphibious vehicles to serve as ferries and bridging vehicles that allow engineers to transport and assemble portable bridges that allow the fighting forces to cross bodies of water.

Careers and Course Work

Those with an interest in science and the military will find opportunities for work in government, private industry, and the academic world. A number of individuals involved in research and development for the military are members of the armed forces, often with specialized training that permits them to supplement their battlefield knowledge with classroom and laboratory preparation to carry out sophisticated scientific inquiry. Since the eighteenth century, governments have established and sponsored military academies to prepare officers for practical applications of military science and engineering, but individuals educated in other institutions can often receive commissions in the services and perform these roles.

Regardless of the institution one chooses to attend, obtaining a bachelor's degree in basic sciences (chemistry, biology, or physics), mathematics, or engineering is often adequate qualification for jobs as technicians working on an array of projects. Occasionally, those with associate's degrees in applied sciences can find work as technicians as well. By far the greatest opportunities for making significant contributions to the military sciences are available to those with advanced degrees, especially in the physical sciences, computer sciences, engineering, or medicine and medical research.

Technicians serving on active duty in military forces frequently receive on-the-job training or attend special schools established by the armed forces, although individuals wishing to pursue careers in military specialties such as avionics, ordnance disposal, medical technology, electronics equipment repair, or similar technical fields will find it helpful to have a sound foundation in mathematics and some understanding of the specific science or technology in which they plan to specialize.

Employment in military science and technology varies by country, but in almost every country opportunities for individuals to pursue their interests in these disciplines is available through commissioning or enlistment in the active service. In the United States, employment is also available with the Department of Defense at DARPA or one of the military service's laboratories and with contractors that provide products and services to the armed forces. Additionally, those with an interest in basic research that might have applications for military use can find rewarding work at a number of universities where government contracts provide funding for significant research in fields that show promise for military application.

Combat engineering is handled almost exclusively by members of the uniformed services. Those interested in working in that field must first enlist or receive a commission in one of the armed forces, and then select combat engineering as a career specialty. The academic qualifications for combat engineers are less stringent than those required of laboratory scientists or design and manufacturing specialists. Often, combat engineers are given specific instruction in the tasks they will perform as part of their military training and participate in refresher courses or advanced training to keep their skills up to date.

Social Context and Future Prospects

If history is any guide, the inevitability of future conflict somewhere in the world suggests that there will be a continuing need for new technologies to wage warfare more effectively. Developments in military sciences are always carried out, however, in a social and political climate that affects both the budgets of those engaged in research and the constraints that are imposed on the kinds of weapons and equipment that may be developed. Working within those real-world parameters, military scientists, especially in countries that enjoy political stability and the financial wherewithal to support major research efforts, continue to explore new applications for existing technologies or work to create new ones that will enhance a country's ability to fight when necessary.

Many military strategists believe that the greatest prospects for advancing a country's ability to fight more effectively lie in the development of more sophisticated tools for information warfare. Devices already available, such as GPS, surveillance satellites, radar, and drones have proven effective in combat; however, refinements to improve their accuracy and reliability, especially in the face of electronic countermeasures, will continue to be required. Electronic command and control tools—instruments such as the Internet and handheld devices that rely on satellites for broadcast capability—will also require constant updating or replacement with yet-undiscovered technologies that can give commanders improved ability to communicate with subordinates or superiors to direct activities and provide necessary support on the battlefield.

Several areas of research suggest the variety of tasks in which military scientists may be engaged. One is the construction of hypersonic aircraft. The potential to create unmanned vehicles that can travel at Mach 5 (five times the speed of sound) or more has great military value for the development of missiles that can strike with exceptional speed against high-value targets, particularly enemy soldiers and their leaders that have the potential to move about. The United States and its allies are also developing more sophisticated weapons that rely on laser technology. Directed-energy weapons, as these devices are called, are being designed using both solid-state and chemical lasers. When operational, these weapons will provide even more accurate platforms from which to engage and neutralize enemy combatants. At the same time, research in neuroscience is ongoing to produce early-warning devices that will monitor soldier's brainwave activities and alert them when their heightened subconscious senses danger.

Significant medical research continues to develop better methods of prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation for members of the armed forces engaged in combat. Of special note is work in prosthetics. Continuing research in biomechanics is leading to improvements in devices that mimic human extremities, and researchers continue to devise ways to link artificial limbs to nerve endings to provide better mobility and control. At the same time, basic research into diseases most commonly associated with battlefield conditions, as well as those that exist in potential battle zones, is under way to create more effective prophylactics that will permit military personnel to ward off disease or recover from illnesses and return to duty more quickly.

In the twenty-first century, however, a major factor influencing military R&D is the increase in incidents of asymmetric warfare worldwide. Countries with large arsenals of sophisticated weapons are finding it necessary to defeat forces with considerably less technological capability. While scientists work to create better defensive armaments and offensive weapons with greater precision to minimize collateral damage, combat engineers and explosive-ordnance-disposal specialists are facing challenges on the front lines to create effective fortifications and remove hazards from battle areas where civilians and combatants are often indistinguishable.

Military applications of drone and artificial intelligence technologies are expected to continue to increase throughout the twenty-first century. In July 2018, DARPA announced the inception of its year-long Artificial Intelligence Exploration program. According to a statement released by the agency, the program “is one key element of DARPA’s broader AI investment strategy that will help ensure the U.S. maintains a technological advantage in this critical area.”

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