Built environment (social science)

Built environment refers to man-made surroundings. These include buildings, infrastructure (such as roads), parks, and other created areas. The built environment can have a significant impact on humans in terms of physical and mental health.

Attention has been increasingly focused on addressing negative effects of poorly designed or haphazard built environments. These effects can include high stress, high blood pressure, and increased air and noise pollution. Difficult-to-navigate environments can also segregate areas, limiting individuals' access to recreation areas, schools, and housing options.

Background

Some of the earliest examples of the built environment have been found in Egypt and Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq). Built environments began to appear as early humans abandoned their nomadic lifestyles in favor of an agricultural existence. They learned to build shelters. Eventually, humans learned to build long-lasting structures, some of which remain standing—for example, pyramids in Egypt and Latin America.

The world's oldest known paved road, which is in Egypt, was built about 4,600 years ago. It was needed to transport stones from a quarry along the Nile River. Archaeologists date the road to about 2600 to 2200 BCE. In connecting the basalt quarry to known areas of settlement, the road attests to the planning and construction needs of ancient Egypt. The large stones were used to construct temples and pyramids.

The first known city planner, Hippodamus of Miletus, lived from about 498 to 408 BCE. At that time, established cities were haphazard, with structures built seemingly in random places. This provided a measure of protection against invasion because foreign troops would easily become lost in the tangled series of streets, with their dead ends and twists. Hippodamus proposed an orderly, rectangular grid of wide streets. Rectangular grids were not new, but Hippodamus created the first ideas of zoning, establishing sacred, public, and private areas. He placed sacred and public spaces, including shrines, open space, government buildings, and market areas, at the center of the city. The remaining space was available for housing. Piraeus, the harbor town of Athens, was designed by Hippodamus, though it is long gone and little is known about it.

Many old cities around the world have been continuously occupied for centuries. The built environment in these urban centers often grew organically, and the lack of planning created high-density occupancy. In many cases, basic infrastructure, such as modern sewage and electricity, has been worked into these areas, though in many parts of the world people continue to live in urban centers with few modern services.

Many urban areas are rife with overcrowding, pollution, disease, and crime. These concerns, in particular overcrowding, drew the attention of American leaders during the nineteenth century. Within a few city blocks, both rampant poverty and lives of privilege coincided. Urban developers sought architects' input on designing mass public housing, and a number of tenement projects were begun.

In addition to concerns about loss of life in fires, crowded tenement housing increased a number of social problems. Cholera, tuberculosis, and yellow fever were common diseases, which spread quickly in the densely populated areas. Nearly 25 percent of infants born in American cities in the late nineteenth century died in their first year of life. Some areas had sewage pipes, but they were overwhelmed by the sheer numbers of occupants in the buildings. Other areas had overflowing cesspools that polluted the rivers, which also served as drinking water. This increased public health hazards and made the cities smell foul. Trash was often left in the streets or tossed into rivers. Industry, which provided livelihoods for many of the working poor, often contributed to city pollution.

These crowded and unclean conditions, along with poverty, created social problems. Low-income people had no options for moving and felt hopeless about their situations. Crime increased, due to both poverty and feelings of hopelessness and anger. Cities often became centers of gang activity, gambling, and prostitution. Alcoholism, which provides a false feeling of escape, increased. These social concerns continued through the twentieth century.

Topic Today

During the twentieth century, many city leaders began working to protect historic parts of the built environment, while simultaneously bringing modern amenities into those areas. This balance seeks both to improve the quality of life for residents and to preserve the unique qualities of the cities—the elements that make them home for their citizens. In some cases this involves changes in land use, which could affect building density. Those involved in such projects examine and consider the impact of changes on residents. For example, they must consider how the character of a neighborhood changes with the addition of hotels and an influx of tourists or the construction of office space and how these changes affect permanent residents. Some concerns include encouraging businesses that will employ local residents to move into these areas.

Sociologists have found that including walkable, open city squares within the built environment promotes social interaction. This improves quality of life. At the same time, public transportation is also necessary, since people often must travel to work. These aspects of the built environment affect daily activities and quality of life.

During the twentieth century, many urban areas saw residents abandoning inner cities for suburbs. This phenomenon was dubbed white flight by the media, because many burgeoning suburbs were largely white. This outflow of people often coincided with businesses closing and industries moving away, which exacerbated existing problems, such as poverty. Many inner cities fell into ruin. (During the twenty-first century, however, this trend has reversed in some cities. Many affluent people began moving into inner-city neighborhoods such as those in Washington, DC. Such demand increases housing costs, which often forces out long-time residents and can change the character of a city's neighborhoods.)

The built environments of suburban areas have also been the focus of quality-of-life studies by health and welfare professionals. Poorly planned growth, or sprawl, can be detrimental to human health. Sprawl often includes low-density housing, commercial areas including strip malls, and large paved areas such as parking lots. These often have zoning laws that separate housing from schools and recreation areas. Housing developments are frequently separated by large areas of vacant land. This sprawl requires many people to rely on automobiles, which further contributes to the isolation because more roads are needed to navigate the areas. Increased traffic can contribute to air and noise pollution and endanger pedestrians and cyclists. These obstacles to walking, cycling, and using recreation areas contribute to sedentary habits, which can increase health problems such as obesity and cardiovascular disease.

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