Environmental Sustainability

Abstract

Environmental sustainability is a growing concept, partly because of the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), which established building criteria for environmentally sustainable development. Through USGBC, the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®) offers certification levels for green construction. Many schools and businesses are turning to LEED for project specifications as the added costs of using recycled materials and adhering to LEED specifications are returned within only a few years of operation. The United Nations signed an agreement in 2005 to reduce the use of greenhouse gases by the year 2012, and an amendment extended that multinational effort through 2020. This effort was continued through the 2020s by the Paris Agreement. Many countries already have reduction efforts in place. In most instances, environmental sustainability is the reduction of carbon footprints.

Overview

Environmental sustainability is an issue that is not restricted to researchers and conservationists. Urban development is as common to see in the United States as the sun rising each morning. Yet, as each additional house is built and each additional mall is constructed, animals, fungi, and vegetation are pushed from their native habitats. It is possible that soon there will be nowhere left for them to go. And, while some companies are creating products in recycled shipping containers and public buildings are finding ways to utilize the sun rather than conventional electricity for lighting, so much more can be done to conserve the world's resources. Putting conservation into perspective is a difficult task because people view the concept differently. To some, conservation means to recycle; to others, it means to drive a hybrid vehicle. Others, still, live in simple homes without power or running water.

Dr. Ken Adams, a professor in the Center for Earth and Environmental Science at Plattsburgh State University, defines environmental sustainability from the perspective of someone who has devoted decades to studying the steady and irreversible loss of the environment:

Many new buildings are created using sustainable practices. However, buildings still consume much of America's resources. According to the nonprofit United States Green Building Council (USGBC), by 2018, about 73 percent of the electricity used in America was going to buildings. Buildings also produce 38 percent of the country's carbon dioxide emissions and consume 13.6 percent of the potable water available to the entire country each year (U.S. Green Building Council, 2018). According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (2018), in 2017, nearly 40 percent of the total energy consumed in the U.S. was used in residences and commercial buildings. By 2022, the total consumption of electricity in the U.S. reached a historic peak at about 4.05 trillion kWh. Of this, residential and commercial buildings consumed the majority ("U.S. Energy Information," 2023). The substantial utilization of resources by buildings (their construction, function, and maintenance) led USGBC to create the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®), which comprises a construction rating system to "guide and distinguish high-performance commercial and institutional projects" in environmentally sustainable ways (LEED® for New Construction). One way LEED® has made an impact is through its building certification process.

Stability of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems depends on the ecological interactions between large numbers of plant and animal species. Early in the twenty-first century, however, most of our planet's ecological productivity is used to support human populations. Consumption of the world's biological support systems by one species threatens the health and integrity of all species, including humans ... Renewable resources are not infinite; they are replenished at some finite rate. Sustainable development, then, means that a society's usage of energy and materials must not exceed nature's production rate of these renewable resources ... The success of new initiatives for the sustainable use of natural resources requires that management plans are ecologically possible, economically feasible, and socially acceptable (Adams, personal communication, October 4, 2008).

The Carbon Footprint. One of the ways to determine whether sustainability is an issue in a household, business, school, or corporation is to determine the carbon footprints people within the buildings are leaving based on their daily activities. In the simplest terms, a carbon footprint is a measurement of human activity on the environment: "It relates to the amount of greenhouse gases produced in our day-to-day lives through burning fossil fuels for electricity, heating and transportation, etc. ... [And] is made up of the sum of two parts, the primary footprint and the secondary footprint" (What is a carbon footprint?, 2008)

A primary footprint is that over which people have direct control. For example, people turn on thermostats and drive cars. On the other hand, secondary footprints are those created indirectly—the house built on undeveloped land, the favorite food that requires packaging, the cars that are manufactured. Each footprint impacts the environment because every resource that is used today could be left unused for future generations. Carbon footprints typically result from what people do, but the term can also be used to describe the results of natural events. For example, although it may be argued that rising temperatures as a result of human-caused global warming have led to an increase in wildfires worldwide, these wildfires are not directly started by humans—and they can release as much carbon dioxide into the air in a matter of weeks as cars do in a year (Thompson, 2007).

In 2008, National Geographic aired a documentary entitled Human Footprint, which personalizes the effect human beings have on the world around them. For example, in an average person's lifetime, National Geographic estimated that the individual will eat 2½ tons of beef—the equivalent of 5 bulls. In addition, this same person will eat 1.7 tons of pork, 2.3 tons of chicken, 1.3 tons of eggs, and approximately 4 tons of potatoes, that is, 6 pigs, 1,423 chickens, 19,826 eggs, and 20,000 potatoes. These numbers only decreased through the 2010s and early 2020s, with the World Economic Forum noting in 2019 that the number of people on the planet doubled in fifty years, but the amount of meat individuals consumed tripped, particularly in China and Europe (Thornton, 2019). In the US, 55 billion animals were killed in 2020 for food production, 23.3 million of which were land animals (Hussain, 2022). To fully consider the issue of a footprint, though, one must consider the cycle of food. Bulls, pigs, and chickens require space, food, shelter—all of which require resources: food needs to be stored, and living and grazing space needs to be safe and passable. In addition, these animals produce waste products that require attention. Much of it can be reused as fertilizer, but not without the energy it takes to move it from the barnyard to the garden or the field.

What also requires consideration is what happens from the time the animals leave the barnyard to the time they end up on the table. Many energy-consuming processes (laboring, storing, packaging, refrigerating) must be completed before they become dinner. Furthermore, it is common for food to travel hundreds of miles before landing in the grocery store. Eggs also require similar processing steps, and they require healthy hens (which require food and shelter) in order to exist. Potatoes require land in which to grow in addition to someone to nourish and care for them until they are ready to be collected and processed, much like animals and eggs (National Geographic Society, 2008).

Applications

Green Schools. LEED® guidelines, originally established in 2009, define a sustainable school site as one that will:

• Prevent loss of soil during construction by storm water runoff and/or wind erosion, including protecting topsoil by stockpiling for reuse;
• Prevent sedimentation of storm sewer or receiving streams; and
• Prevent polluting the air with dust and particulate matter.

(LEED® for Schools for New Construction and Major Renovations, 2009).

These guidelines were widely used in the early twenty-first century, as 180 countries utilized the certification system as of 2023 ("LEED certification for schools," 2023). Schools in countries such as the United States, China, France, Israel, and the United Kingdom have utilized green building practices in school construction, maintenance, and function. These changes have not only improved the quality of health for students and employees, they improved the quality of learning within the school as well as creating community involvement to conserve local resources. Building a LEED®-certified school costs more per square foot than building a non-LEED®-certified school. While calculating the upfront price per square foot makes green building seem expensive, the savings in energy costs shows an even return within a few years of a school's operation. This savings is due to lower energy and water costs, less waste, and fewer students and teacher absences due to illnesses (Sack-Min, 2007).

The USGBC has studied the impact of green schools on student achievement. Ashley Katz, communications coordinator for USGBC, has stated that sustainable school construction (and renovation) is comprehensive:

"Students who attend green schools have higher levels of productivity because they have connection to daylight, better air quality, better acoustics, less likelihood of mold and asthma and breathing problems, and then there are benefits for the school itself—energy savings, reduced operating costs, and the environmental benefits that go along with it" (as cited in Kadleck, 2007, par. 7).

LEED® building certification has become required for all new school construction in the US. Existing school renovations can follow the guidelines and apply for certification as well. Thousands of schools have been built using sustainable construction with the intention of becoming certified.

Green Businesses. In addition to schools going green, businesses have noted the advantages of sustainable development as well. By 2023, thousands of companies engaged in activities which made their production, sourcing, product type, and business model more environmentally respectful, as modern consumers demanded higher standards from businesses. Patagonia was globally renowned as an eco-friendly business. It consistently donated 1 percent of its sales to environmental causes, offered customers a "Worn Wear" program to encourage the repair and rewear of clothing, and prioritized using recycled materials to produce their products. Another example, Seventh Generation, offered consumers an alternative to chemical based cleaners and personal care products, a critical step to preserve the earth's water supply. 4Ocean is also dedicated to cleaning the oceans. The company raises awareness about plastic pollution in the water supply and funds their cleanup efforts by selling bracelets made from the materials they remove from the oceans ("Top 20 sustainable companies," 2023). According to a 2020 McKinsey U.S. consumer sentiment survey, around 60 percent of Americans would pay more for a product packaged in sustainable materials, and in 2022, around 78 percent of U.S. consumers reported that sustainable living was important to them. Considering these statistics, companies are wise to continue to incorporate eco-friendly business practices (Frey et al., 2023).

Global Efforts. In February of 2005, the United Nations signed into agreement the Kyoto Protocol, a treaty that was first negotiated almost a decade earlier in Kyoto, Japan. "The Kyoto Protocol is a legally binding agreement under which industrialized countries will reduce their collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2% ... The goal is to lower overall emissions from six greenhouse gases—carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, HFCs, and PFCs" (United Nations Environment Programme). The protocol's initial phase was for the years 2008 to 2012. A goal was set, and 192 parties signed the agreement, with 37 industrialized nations plus the European Union committing to emissions reduction (Climate Crisis Coalition, 2006). Mayors of many U.S. cities signed on to follow the Protocol regulations, jumping ahead of federally regulated mandates based on the treaty (Sustainable Cities, 2008); on the federal level, the U.S. signed but did not ratify the Protocol. By 2014, the United States was expelling 15 percent of the world's carbon dioxide emissions (cited in U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2016). After the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol—to reduce GHG emissions to 5 percent against 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012—the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was adopted in December 2012. The amendment applies to the second commitment period of the Protocol, from 2013 to 2020, in which parties agreed to reduce emissions by at least 18 percent below 1990 levels (United Nations, n.d.). The Paris Agreement, also a treaty under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, was established in 2015 to call on all countries to make efforts to reduce emissions, not just developed countries. As of 2023, 194 parties had signed the Agreement. While the efforts of the Paris Agreement to lower the rise in global temperatures will persist throughout the twenty-first century, the efforts of the Kyota Protocol and the Paris Agreement were credited with the shrinking ozone hole in the early 2020s ("The Paris Agreement," n.d.).

Hess and Winner (2007) completed over 30 case studies of U.S. cities in 2005 to examine how the financial restructuring of city government can increase community involvement as well as make opportunities like urban agriculture and local business associations financially feasible. However, not all environmental projects are financially possible. In fact, many "urban governments with tight budgetary constraints face difficult choices when trying to find funding ... that would make a region more environmentally sustainable. Proposals that are environmentally sound and also help people at lower income levels are often regarded as noble but unaffordable" (Hess & Winner, 2007, p. 379). "Some cities have been making changes, however. For example, Austin, Boston, Cleveland, Denver, Detroit, New York, Philadelphia, Portland, Sacramento, San Francisco, and Seattle have focused community productivity toward urban gardens and other inner city farming opportunities" (p. 381). "In addition, community members in cities like Chattanooga, Oakland, San Francisco, and Seattle have established green initiatives within their public transit systems" (p. 381).

Other cities have also made strides to create sustainable environments for their residents. For example, China planned to create a carbon-neutral city just outside of Shanghai. The plan projected that Dongtan would utilize energy-efficient housing, various recycling efforts, and restrictions on automobile use to complete its sustainable ideal. The project was first contracted in 2005 with the goal of completion in 2010. However, budgetary and political issues caused the project to be halted indefinitely. Curitiba in Brazil created a rapid bus system that moves large numbers of people through its city at a much smaller expense than their subway system. "The bus line, with dedicated bus lanes throughout the complex route, eased congestion, reduced pollution, and encouraged ridership" (Sustainable Cities, 2008). In Bogotá, Columbia, a similar bus line was created that exceeds the speed and rider capacity of the system in Curitiba. Bogotá also created over 300 kilometers of bike lanes for people to travel throughout the city.

"In addition, the city has created or renovated 1,200 parks, planted over 100,000 trees and involved communities in improvements in their neighborhoods ... By using public funds for parks and bike paths instead of costly infrastructure for cars, the city not only reduced congestion and pollution but explicitly affirmed the equality of its citizens in public spaces despite the economic differences that allow some to drive to work while others walk" (Sustainable Cities, 2008).

Viewpoints

Urban Sprawl. As the population of humans increases, so too does the need for each being to have space. That space must come from somewhere, and more often than not, it comes from the grass, the trees, and various water reserves. The following relief maps show the results of urban sprawl in the Washington, DC, and Baltimore, MD, areas. The computer-model maps show the population growth of almost two hundred years in these areas. In 1800, the area of population was barely noticeable. However, the view in 1990 shows an area so populated that it represents hundreds of miles of land that was once wooded, rich in plant and animal life that has become so developed people need to plant trees to give them privacy from their neighbors. In addition, the sprawl surrounding the Chesapeake Bay makes traveling a short distance around the bay a lengthy process. In addition to the animal life that has been pushed out, many aquatic species have been lost as well due to the fishing industry in the area.

While living in Walden Woods in Massachusetts, Henry David Thoreau wrote Walden, inspiring the concept of environmental conservation. Since his death in 1862, the woods have become a landscaped museum for anyone who wants to travel there. In 1991, Longmeadow Press published a compilation of environmental conservation essays written by celebrity activists. Proceeds from the sale of the book, Heaven Is Under Our Feet, were donated to the Walden Woods Project, founded by musician Don Henley. The nonprofit organization was created to raise the necessary funds to purchase part of Walden Woods that was vulnerable to development. The mission of preserving Walden Woods has been accomplished, as the Walden Woods Project purchased almost 150 acres of land in Walden Woods. The land purchased by Henley's group is protected from development and is used for educational programming and research purposes (www.walden.org).

James Michener is one of the writers featured in Heaven Is Under Our Feet. In his essay, Michener points out the responsibility human beings have to preserve what is not ours to overtake. We are, after all, sharing space, and we need to live as though our main concern is preserving that space.

"Since man shares this earth with other creatures, he is obligated to treat them fairly. This is a moral debt which he is free to ignore, but only at his peril ... It is a hideous act to terminate a natural species, made more so if one contemplates the millions of years it may have taken for that creature to evolve in meaningful ways from a prehistoric prototype. The overwhelming fact is that once a species has been killed off, there is no way in which it can be reinstituted" (Michener, 1991, p. 95).

The responsibility of sustainable development is great and falls not only on big business but on the little people as well. Cigarette butts do not biodegrade, nor does Styrofoam. Moreover, just because an old stove is thrown into a landfill does not mean it is gone for good. Recycled products can be used for construction, and native plants can enhance a landscape as well as sustain the earth surrounding it. Community gardens not only encourage community involvement, but they can feed the community as well. Civic responsibility is not a passing fad; those who focus on consumption and refuse to participate in maintaining their surroundings may eventually take those surroundings away from everyone else.

Terms & Concepts

Carbon Footprint: A measurement of human activity on the environment.

Civic Engagement: Community activism.

Ecosystem Management: Maintaining an environment that specific organisms rely on for life.

Environmental Impact: The effect on the environment based on development practices.

Environmental Sustainability: Using natural resources in a way that does not harm the environment.

Global Warming: The impact of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions on the ozone layer.

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED): A nonprofit organization established by the United States Green Building Council that created guidelines for green building practices.

Sustainable Development: Environmentally conscious building (that does not deplete more natural resources than it protects).

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