Cross-cultural Perspectives on Sexual Orientation
Cross-cultural perspectives on sexual orientation explore the complex interplay between societal norms, historical contexts, and individual identities regarding sexual preferences, which typically include heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality. Throughout history, same-sex relations have coexisted with heterosexual relationships, but acceptance of sexual orientation varies widely. In many cultures, same-sex relationships have faced condemnation, leading to discrimination and punishment for those identifying as homosexual or bisexual. The definition of sexual orientation itself is intricate, with behaviors sometimes not aligning with self-identification, raising questions about the nature of orientation as either an innate characteristic or a choice influenced by cultural factors.
Cultural attitudes towards homosexuality are often shaped by religion, with different faiths holding diverse views; for example, while some Christian denominations condemn same-sex relationships, others embrace and affirm them. Moreover, notions of masculinity, gender roles, and social behaviors often intersect with sexual orientation, complicating acceptance in various societies. As attitudes evolve, particularly in Western cultures where homosexuality has gained greater acceptance, discussions about rights, discrimination, and the push for equality continue to be significant global issues. Understanding these perspectives is vital for fostering a more inclusive and respectful discourse around sexual orientation.
Cross-cultural Perspectives on Sexual Orientation
Abstract
Same-sex relations have existed alongside heterosexual relations throughout history. In Western cultures, it is widely believed that same-sex orientation is an innate, physiological characteristic that cannot be changed. Nevertheless, sexual orientation as a concept is difficult to define. Throughout history, medical science, theologians, legal doctrine and cultural norms have all played a role in influencing how sexual orientation and/or same-sex relations are perceived.
Overview
Sexual orientation is defined as one's sexual preference for men, women, or both. Although history is replete with literary and religious references to same-sex relations as well as to relations between members of the opposite sex, some societies have not always accepted these different relations, or the sexual orientations of the people who engage in them, as equal (Asia-Europe Foundation, n.d.; Herek, 1997-2008). Indeed, same-sex relations have often been condemned, and those who claim a preference for these relations have been subjected to punishment and discrimination. While attitudes toward homosexuality and bisexuality have become more accepting, the treatment of individuals with sexual orientations toward members of their own sex remains controversial within some cultures.
Defining Sexual Orientations. Defining sexual orientation is not as simple as it seems. While there are common categories used to describe sexual orientation: heterosexual (prefers opposite sex), homosexual (prefers same sex), bisexual (enjoys both), for researchers, it is more difficult to define who fits into each category. This is because an individual's desires and attractions may not always match observable or reported behavior. Take the following cases as examples:
- Interviews have indicated that some men who consider themselves to be heterosexual have had sexual relations with men (Stokes, Miller & Mundhenk, 1998).
- Some men and women who are attracted to members of the same sex marry a member of the opposite sex in order to fulfill cultural expectations or to avoid stigmatization. Sometimes, they have same-sex relations on the side.
- In some cultures, men have reported having same-sex relations in their youth, but as adults, they reject these relations to enter into heterosexual marriages (Cardoso, 2008).
How should individuals in these cases be defined? Should a self-definition as heterosexual be considered accurate when a man says he prefers women but only has sex with men? If one has sex with both men and women, but prefers one over the other, what classification should be given? And what about experimentation in adolescence with members of the same sex? Does sexual orientation change over time? These are some of the complex issues that can arise when defining sexual orientation for the purposes of research and which may cause confusion when individuals are struggling to define their sexual orientation or identity (Stokes, Miller & Mundhenk, 1998).
Choice vs. Innate Quality. The question of whether people have same-sex relations as a result of a biologically determined and innate sexual orientation or as a choice made due to environmental factors which prohibit heterosexual relations or encourage opportunistic behavior is one of the core issues underlying controversies over same-sex relations. Because self-definitions do not always match behavior, and because behavior may be influenced by cultural attitudes toward same-sex relations, answering this question is not easy. Throughout history, theologians, medical professionals, and legal scholars have provided guidance on why people engage in same-sex relations and/or on how cultures should respond to individuals who engage in them. Despite this guidance, and perhaps because of it, today, there is no worldwide consensus on the roots of homosexual and bisexual behavior and even less agreement on how individuals who engage in such behavior should be treated.
Applications
Cross-Cultural Research. One reason that many people around the world may view same-sex relations as a product of choice is that in many cultures, same-sex behavior appears to be connected to a lack of gender diversity. In cultures where women are secluded, young men may first experiment with sex through same-sex relations. The reasoning, perhaps, to explain this behavior is that men need to learn about sex in order to function as husbands; once married, this would no longer be necessary and the behavior would be deemed inappropriate. Evidence for this perspective comes from many studies, and was reported in a round-up by Cardoso (2008) that is partially summarized here and which illustrates the many reasons that cultures use to justify same-sex behavior.
- Melanesia—Serves to develop masculinity
- Azande (African people)—Compensates for the lack of women
- Brazil—Increases sexual options for poor fishermen
- India—Allows for the discharge of body tension among truck and taxi drivers
- Morocco—Comprises a stage of sexual development among boys aged 9–17
While the relative unavailability of women seems to account for some instances of same-sex relations among men, throughout all cultures there are women and men who choose homosexual relationships even when heterosexual partners are available. This fact has led cultures around the world to ask what their attitudes should be toward homosexuality in general. Many religions have condemned same-sex relations as being sinful and against the will of God (Asia-Europe Foundation, n.d.; Exodus International, 2005; Myers & Scanzoni, 2005). The natural order of the world, these religions contend, is for men to mate with women.
In some cultures, the violation of traditional gender roles is enough to condemn anyone who considers themselves homosexual to disgrace or punishment. Toro-Alfonso (2007) writes that for Latinos, the "machismo" ideology, which grants males superiority in the culture, is widely accepted. At the same time, the myth is held that gay men want to be women and lesbians want to be men.
In other cultures, a distinction is made between the active and passive actors in same-sex relations, and those who are passive may be considered differently than those who are active (Cardoso, 2008; Stokes, Miller & Mundhenk, 1998). For instance, in some cultures, only the passive actor is considered homosexual. Thus, in Brazil, Turkey, and Thailand, social categories exist for poor, working class boys who have sex with men that do not concur with traditional conceptions of homosexuality. Attitudes toward the passive actor are generally more negative in cultures that make such a distinction. While contemporary Western sociologists have separated sex from gender, with sex being a biologically determined characteristic and gender being socially constructed—meaning that for a man to display "feminine" characteristics is not necessarily unusual—this separation is not always recognized outside of academia or in non-Western cultures (Jandt & Hundley, 2007). Thus, gay men who demonstrate effeminate behaviors may be perceived as passive and as accepting the lower female status. While they may be socially tolerated, they are likely to be viewed more negatively than a masculine gay man who blends into the heterosexual crowd (Cardoso, 2008).
The distinction between active and passive homosexuals is a widespread phenomenon. Other countries which have created a social role for "heterosexual men" who like to have sex with homosexuals include Mexico, the Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, Iran, Argentina, Uruguay, Nicaragua, Syria, and Morocco (Cardoso, 2008).
Religious Perspectives. Perhaps the most influential force in the development of cultural attitudes toward sexual orientation is religion. Religion is the compass by which many people judge whether actions are right or wrong, and many of the world's major religions hold firm positions on whether homosexuality is moral. Indeed, world opinion is sharply divided along religious lines in regard to homosexuality. A 2013 Pew Global Attitudes survey found that large majorities in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East reported the belief that homosexuality should not be accepted by society. In Western Europe, on the other hand, similar majorities said homosexuality should be accepted. In the Americas, individuals indicated mixed views, marked by a significant age gap. Younger respondents were more likely than older respondents to accept homosexuality (Pew Research Center, 2013).
Religious doctrines reflect a diversity of opinion on homosexuality, with divisions occurring among denominations as well as between major religions. The following provides a brief overview of the most pertinent positions of some of the world's religions.
Buddhism. Buddhism does not have a position on homosexuality, but individuals have interpreted texts relating to sexuality and relationships in order to understand how a Buddhist might perceive sexual orientation. The Buddhist precept relating to sexuality is the panca sila or moral code. One of the precepts in this code says, "I will take the rule of training not to go the wrong way for sexual pleasure." The code allows the individual to define wrong way. Other Buddhist principles related to relationships indicate that if two adults are consenting, adultery is not involved, and the sexual act is made out of love, respect, loyalty and warmth, then no precepts are broken. While same-sex relationships are not condemned by Buddhism, the Buddha did advise against acts that would be against societal norms or that would raise legal sanctions because of the anxiety and embarrassment that such acts create (Asia-Europe Foundation, n.d.; Gay and Lesbian Counseling Service of New South Wales, n.d.).
Christianity. Multiple positions on homosexuality exist within the various denominations of the Christian faith. Evangelical Christians condemn homosexuality as a sin that goes against the will of God, and many Evangelicals believe that homosexuality can be reversed through reorientation or reparative therapy. Many other mainstream Protestant Christians tend to reject this view, however, believing that homosexuality is an innate, physiological characteristic that cannot be changed (Myers & Scanzoni, 2005). Many Protestants have argued that since God created many sexual orientations, homosexuals should be accepted into the church. Some churches, such as the United Church of Christ and the Episcopal Church, ordain active gays and lesbian members (Gay and Lesbian Counseling Service of New South Wales, n.d.). The Catholic Church formally opposes homosexuality, regarding same-sex attraction as "objectively disordered," according to the church catechism, and asserts that gay people "are called to chastity."
Hinduism. Hinduism does not provide clear guidance on homosexuality. Some interpreters have read the Dharma Shastras, which give three functions of sexuality, as supporting homosexual relations that are based on love. Others have said the text, which says procreation is one function of marriage, indicates that homosexuals should not be allowed to marry. The Manusmriti is a text that does not accept homosexuality, indicating the punishment that might follow from same-sex relations. On the other hand, Vatsyana, a Kama Sutra writer, says that homosexuality is accepted and allowed by the teachings.
Islam. Islam is a religion that condemns homosexuality based on interpretations of the Quran. Islamic law (Shari'ah) provides guidelines for how same-sex behavior is treated. Under this law, four separate legal schools provide slightly different guidelines for punishment, reformation, and standards of proof needed to convict someone of homosexuality. The Hanafite says that no physical punishment is necessary. The Hanbalite requires severe punishment, while the Sha'fi requires a minimum of four adult males as witness before a conviction is possible.
Judaism. Orthodox Jews are strongly against homosexuality, which they believe is forbidden by the Torah. Conservative, Reconstructionist and Reform Jews have taken more moderate positions, providing support for various gay and lesbian rights.
Taoism. This Chinese religion is based on the beliefs that there is a natural balance in the universe represented by the opposites of yin-yang. Two positions are based on a Taoist viewpoint. One is that a yang-yang (male-male) or yin-yin (female-female) relationship would be out of balance. On the other hand, because all males have some yin and all females some yang, feminine behavior in males or vice versa could be considered a natural phenomenon and thus, homosexuality could be viewed as normal (Asia-Europe Foundation, n.d.; Gay and Lesbian Counseling Service of New South Wales, n.d.)..
Medical Perspectives. In Western cultures, the medical and mental health communities have become strong proponents of the view that sexual orientation is an innate, biological characteristic that cannot be changed. This view is a change from the medical community's earlier position, held from the late 1800s until the 1970s, that homosexuality was a disorder requiring treatment. Following years of research and treatments that failed to change desires or behaviors, the medical community removed homosexuality from its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in 1973. Since then, the American Psychological Association, American Academy of Pediatrics, National Association of Social Workers, and the American Psychiatric Association have said that attempting to change one's sexual orientation through therapy can cause harm (Herek, 1997-2008; Myers & Scanzoni, 2005).
Issues
Homophobia & Legal Rights. Negative attitudes towards same-sex behavior may manifest themselves as homophobia. Homophobia is, technically, the fear of homosexuality and often leads individuals to reject or socially exclude those who claim gay, lesbian, or bisexual identities (Toro-Alfonso, 2007). Homophobic behaviors and attitudes can result in bullying and discrimination, such as unfair treatment toward homosexuals in the workplace, school, or elsewhere. Homophobia can also result in hate crimes, violent and/or other criminal actions committed against homosexuals. In some countries, widespread homophobic attitudes have been inscribed in the form of laws that make same-sex relations illegal or that deny rights such as marriage or adoption to same-sex couples.
Throughout history, many homosexual and bisexual individuals have hidden their identity in order to avoid negative societal repercussions. Their friends and family members may deny that their loved ones are different, or may accept it as long as it isn't mentioned. The fear of negative reactions to their identity can produce negative mental health effects. It can also make it more difficult for those struggling to understand their sexual orientation to accept a homosexual or bisexual identity (Stokes, Miller & Mundhenk, 1998).
In the past several decades, encouraged by medical views that sexual orientation is innate and normal, and inspired by other minority civil rights movements, gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals, have become more politically organized. In the United States, the gay rights movement has been successful in achieving the decriminalization of sodomy and recognition of civil unions and gay marriage on a state-by-state basis since the 1960s, and nationwide based on Supreme Court rulings in 2003 (in the case of sodomy) and 2015 (in the case of gay marriage). Around the world, organizations have formed to advocate for gay rights, including the right to be free from discrimination, the right to civil unions and marriage, and the right to adopt.
These movements have brought sexual orientation into public view and brought about changes in cultural attitudes and behaviors. For instance, in the European Union (EU), wide-ranging anti-discrimination laws have been passed that include sexual orientation as a protected category.
Terms & Concepts
Bisexual: Describes someone who is sexually attracted to both men and women.
Gay: Synonym for homosexual, or sometimes specifically refers to homosexual men.
Gay rights movement: Umbrella term for the movement for civil rights for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals. This movement has extended around the world where many organizations are making the case for equal treatment for those of nontraditional sexual orientations.
Heterosexual: Describes someone who is sexually attracted to people of the opposite sex.
Homosexual: Describes someone who is sexually attracted to people of the same sex.
Homophobia: The fear of homosexuality.
Lesbian: A homosexual woman.
Reparative therapy: A type of counseling that attempts to change one's homosexual preferences and to replace them with heterosexual desires; sometimes called conversion therapy.
Transgender: Describes someone whose gender identity differs from the one they were assigned at birth; not directly relevant to discussions of sexual orientation.
Bibliography
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Suggested Reading
Badgett, M. V., & Frank, J. (Eds.). Sexual orientation discrimination: An international perspective. London; New York: Routledge.
Collier, K. L., van Beusekom, G., Bos, H. W., & Sandfort, T. M. (2013). Sexual orientation and gender identity/expression related peer victimization in adolescence: A systematic review of associated psychosocial and health outcomes. Journal of Sex Research, 50(3/4), 299-317. doi:10.1080/00224499.2012.750639. Retrieved October 31, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=86010319&site=ehost-live
Epstein, R., McKinney, P., Fox, S., & Garcia, C. (2012). Support for a fluid-continuum model of sexual orientation: A large-scale internet study. Journal of Homosexuality, 59, 1356-1381. doi:10.1080/00918369.2012.724634. Retrieved October 31, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=83404307&site=ehost-live
Gordon, L. E., & Silva, T. J. (2015). Inhabiting the sexual landscape: Toward an interpretive theory of the development of sexual orientation and identity. Journal of Homosexuality, 62(4), 495-530. doi:10.1080/00918369.2014.986417. Retrieved February 27, 2018 from EBSCO online database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=100776592&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Halsall, P. (2007). People with a history: An online guide to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and tran history. Fordham University Retrieved September 1, 2008, from http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/index-eur2.html
Omoto, A. M., & Kurtzman, H. S. (Eds.). (2006). Sexual orientation and mental health: Examining identity and development in lesbian, gay, and bisexual people . Washington DC: American Psychological Association.