Devil
The Devil is a prominent figure in various religions and cultural narratives, often seen as the embodiment of evil and the adversary of humanity. Commonly associated with Christianity and Islam, the Devil is portrayed as a tempter who leads individuals toward sin, often commanding an army of demons. Interpretations of the Devil differ significantly across cultures; for instance, while Christianity depicts him as a malevolent being, some Jewish traditions view him more as an internal obstacle rather than a distinct entity. The concept of the Devil has historical roots in early human understandings of good and evil, evolving through various cultures to take on numerous forms, such as the Egyptian demon Set, the Greek Hades, and the Buddhist Mara.
Depictions of the Devil have changed over time, from grotesque representations in medieval art to more human-like portrayals in later literature, emphasizing the idea that the Devil may represent the darker aspects of human nature. Notable literary works, such as Dante’s *Inferno* and John Milton’s *Paradise Lost*, have shaped the modern perception of the Devil, often complicating his character to reflect themes of temptation and moral struggle. In contemporary culture, the imagery of the Devil continues to evolve, symbolizing the ongoing human battle against the concept of evil.
Subject Terms
Devil
The Devil is a figure identified in many religions as the embodiment of evil. In most depictions, the Devil is grotesque in nature and considered the enemy of God and humanity. The Devil is commonly associated with Christianity and Islam, in which he is depicted as the foil of humankind and tempter of souls toward the path of evil and sin. The Devil is also usually portrayed as reigning over an army of demons that do his bidding. Interpretations of the Devil vary by culture. Some traditions, such as Judaism, do not recognize the Devil as a physical being but as an obstacle to overcome within the self. The Devil is often alternately referred to as Satan, Beelzebub, Lucifer, and the Antichrist, among many other titles.
The Devil Throughout History
The concept of the Devil began with the human notions of good and evil. Early cultures' understanding of this dual nature of reality was individualized, involving one comprehensive vision of good and one of evil. As human cognition developed, the concept of good came to be worshiped and referred to a supreme being of truth and morality. Evil found its symbol in beings described as corrupt and wicked. Over the centuries, the idea of a supreme evil being took form in a number of cultures. The ancient Egyptians had a demon of death called Set, described as evil, angry, and frightening. The Greeks had a similar figure, named Hades, who controlled death and the underworld. Early Hebrew civilizations in Israel recognized a demon of the desert called Azazel, who would evolve to become the Devil/Satan of the Old Testament. Buddhists also recognize a Devil-like figure in Mara, referred to as the "Evil One."
The word devil derives from the Greek word diábolos, meaning "slanderer." The role of the Devil throughout history has always been one of opposition and temptation, indicating a being out to ruin the character of an individual. Early religions identified the Devil as an adversary or trickster who enjoyed making trouble. The Devil's association with sin and evil was cemented in Christian teachings. The Devil appears in the Christian Bible as a tempter of Jesus, possessor of souls, and compromiser of body and mind. In the Christian tradition, the Devil, also referred to as Satan or Lucifer, defies God and is cast out of heaven. As revenge for this alienation, the Devil becomes determined to corrupt the good nature of humankind. In the Old Testament of the Christian Bible, the Devil appears as a serpent that convinces Eve to eat the apple in the Garden of Eden in the Adam and Eve story, leading to the introduction of sin into the world.
The Bible makes diverse use of the word devil throughout its text. Some modern Christian interpretations view the character of the Devil as a representation of the idea of sin and evil, rather than an actual personified entity. Judaism views the Devil similarly. Jewish texts use the word to refer to "the accuser" or "the adversary" but not as the name of an actual being.
Depictions of the Devil
The appearance of the Devil varies by era and culture. In the late Middle Ages, most art depicted Satan as a horned beast that devoured the souls of the damned. Fourteenth-century literary masterpiece Dante's Inferno describes a massive, horned, tri-faced being chewing on three of the most infamous traitors in history: Judas, Brutus, and Cassius. Other interpretations gave the Devil the form of a dragon or snake. Artists such as Hieronymus Bosch and Albrecht Dürer in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries turned to established ideas of demonic figures to render their visions of the Devil. Christian art regularly portrayed the Devil as a creature formed from many animals. His face was often made up of varying features of pigs, goats, or rams. Horns appeared to be a staple inclusion in most early visualizations of the Devil.
By the eighteenth century, Devil imagery had taken on a more human form. Artists continued to use horns to identify the Devil but also gave the Devil human characteristics. In John Milton's classic work Paradise Lost, the Devil is described as a tragic hero, and the book's illustrations depict him as a godlike, armored commander of armies.
Nineteenth-century writings such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust and Mark Twain's Mysterious Stranger popularized a cunning Devil known for mischief who takes on human form to trick people into doing bad things. By rendering the Devil as humanlike, artists and writers seemed to be hinting that the Devil was not just some outside force, but a force already within people that needed to be conquered. Throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, varying images of the Devil found life in popular culture, with both the horned beast and the devious personification used comparably. The Devil continued to represent evil and the human struggle against it, a message that would persist even as the storytelling media changed from paper and canvas to film and television.
Bibliography
Carus, Paul. History of the Devil and the Idea of Evil. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2004. Print.
De La Torre, Miguel and Albert Hernandez. The Quest for the Historical Satan. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2011. Print.
Desmond, Scott A., Tom Clark, and Christopher D. Bader. "Sympathy for the Devil: Belief in Satan and Moral Beliefs." Chapman University, 9 June 2022, digitalcommons.chapman.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1098&context=sociology‗articles. Accessed 25 Oct. 2024.
Levy, Paul. "What Do We Know About the Devil?" Tabletalk, 3 Jan. 2024, https://tabletalkmagazine.com/posts/what-do-we-know-about-the-devil/. Accessed 25 Oct. 2024.
Pagels, Elaine. The Origin of Satan: How Christians Demonized Jews, Pagans, and Heretics. New York: Vintage, 1996. Print.
Simon, Ed. Devil's Contract: The History of the Faustian Bargain. Melville House, 2024.