Pashtuns

The Pashtuns are an ethnic group of forty to fifty million people native to regions of Afghanistan and Pakistan. They are known variously as Pathans, Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, and Afghans. Pashtuns make up the majority ethnic group in Afghanistan, where the term Afghan referred exclusively to the Pashtun people until it became synonymous with any resident of Afghanistan. In Pakistan, the Pashtuns represent a significant minority in the northern regions of the country that border Afghanistan. Together, they share a common language called Pashto (or Pashtu), which is categorized as part of the Eastern Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages.

History

The ancestral origins of the Pashtuns are unclear. The lands that the Pashtuns regard as Pashtunistan are at a crossroads of human culture, where multitudes of different peoples have intermixed for centuries. While the Pashtuns have an oral legend that possibly links their origins to ancient Israel, many ethnologists believe their ancestors were likely among the earliest inhabitants of the region between the Amu Darya and Indus Rivers that represent the heart of traditional Pashtun lands.

Little was written about the history of the Pashtuns before 1500. It is thought that they originally were nomadic herders who migrated throughout Central Asia; however, they left no written record of their own culture. Instead, the Pashtuns relied on an oral tradition to relate their genealogical origins. Somewhat problematically, many oral histories passed down through the major Pashtun tribes contrast with one another. Some scholars argue that this lack of consensus may offer insight into the Pashtuns' complicated origins.

Over time, the Pashtuns' ancestors likely merged with diverse cultures through marriage and politics to give rise to the modern-day Pashtun tribes. Each of these tribes may have blended with other cultures independently while still retaining the Pashtun cultural name. Therefore, individual Pashtun tribes may have different cultural heritages.

Although the Pashtuns never coalesced into a single independent empire, the eighteenth-century Durrani Empire was led by Pashtuns. More recently, a Pashtun majority dominated the nation of Afghanistan until the Soviet invasion in 1979. This event triggered a large exodus of Pashtuns from Afghanistan that tipped them below the threshold of 50 percent of the population for the first time in that nation's history as an independent state. In recent decades, despite the continuing instability of Afghanistan, the return of refugees and exiles has given the Pashtuns a straight majority once again.

In May 2014, the Pashtun Tahafuz Movement (PTM) was formed, primarily focusing on safety and identifying landmines in the Pashtun tribal areas. However, the organization expanded over time, and by October 2024, the Pakistani government banned the PTM, saying it was a threat to national security. Human rights groups like Amnesty International opposed this decision, condemning it as an oppressive attack on personal freedoms. Protests of the ban led to violence.

Culture

The Pashtuns are divided into four principal tribal groups: the Bhittani, Ghurghust, Sarbani, and Karlani. Each group is said to be descended from one of the sons of Qais, a seventh-century figure who is considered the ancestor of all Pashtuns. These four groups are further divided into about sixty tribes, which are subdivided into clans, sub-clans, and families. This complex association of tribal affiliation makes the Pashtuns the largest tribally organized system in the world.

The Pashtuns are a highly patriarchal culture in which males have primary decision-making authority. A single household traditionally consists of the extended family, including the family patriarch's married sons and their families. All married daughters are expected to live with their husband's families.

The Pashtuns are governed by a tribal code of ethics called the Pashtunwali, which means "the way of the Pashtuns." It predates the introduction of the Islamic faith to their homeland, and modern Pashtun culture reflects a combination of Pashtunwali and Islamic tradition. While some aspects of the Pashtunwali conflict with Quranic teachings, Pashtuns nevertheless hold both traditions in high regard; however, the Pashtunwali usually receives greater consideration. For instance, although the Quran notes that inheritances are to be equally divided among all children, according to Pashtunwali custom, only male heirs receive a share.

Among the most important aspects of the Pashtunwali is the principle of Melmastia, a form of traditional hospitality. According to this tenet of the Pashtunwali, Pashtuns are obligated to provide protection to guests in their homes—regardless of their religion, gender, or political affiliations—without expecting any favors in return. Badal represents the idea of vengeance or justice. Under the precepts of Badal, any perceived insult or crime inflicted upon an individual must be reciprocated in equal measure by the male members of his family. Nanawatay, or asylum, is the quality of mercy. According to a strict interpretation of Nanawatay, if an opponent asks for forgiveness or clemency, a Pashtun is obligated to provide both protection and forgiveness.

Religion

The Pashtuns primarily follow the Sunni branch of Islam. They believe themselves to be among the earliest adopters of the Islamic faith, and their observance can be traced back to Qais Abdur Rashid (575–661 CE)—a contemporary of the Prophet Muhammad and the founder of the Pashtun nation. The most common legend holds that when the forerunners to the Pashtun peoples heard about Muhammad, they sent Qais—who is said to be a descendant of King Saul of Israel—to investigate his claims about being the prophet of God. Upon recognizing the authority of Muhammad, Qais returned to his tribespeople as the first Pashtun convert to Islam. Qais is widely regarded as the symbolic father of Pashtunistan, and many Pashtun tribes trace their genealogical origins to Qais and his heirs.

Most Pashtuns ascribe to a traditional form of the Sunni branch of Islam. Sunni Islam differs from Shi'a Islam concerning the identity of Muhammad's true successor, a split that occurred shortly after the death of Muhammad. This schism has led to intense divisions in Islam and has been the source of repeated conflicts throughout Central Asia.

Bibliography

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Devasher, Tilak. "Pashtunwali - the Way of the Pashtuns." NatStrat, 30 May 2024, www.natstrat.org/articledetail/publications/-58.html. Accessed 5 Feb. 2025.

Ellis-Petersen, Hannah. "Pakistan Bans Pashtun Group As Government Cracks Down on Dissent." The Guardian, 7 Oct. 2024, www.theguardian.com/world/2024/oct/07/pakistan-bans-pashtun-group-ptm-crackdown-dissent. Accessed 5 Feb. 2025.

Gibbon, Kate Fitz. "Pashtunwali: Pashtun Traditional Tribal Law in Afghanistan." Cultural Property News, 28 Aug. 2021, culturalpropertynews.org/pashtunwali-pashtun-traditional-tribal-law-in-afghanistan. Accessed 5 Feb. 2025.

"Pashtun." Countries and Their Cultures, Advameg, www.everyculture.com/wc/Afghanistan-to-Bosnia-Herzegovina/Pashtun.html. Accessed 5 Feb. 2025.

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Siddique, Abubakar. "Twenty-First Century Pashtuns: Continuity amid Catastrophe." The Pashtun Question: The Unresolved Key to the Future of Pakistan and Afghanistan. Hurst, 2014, pp. 9–24.