Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests

• Category: Forest Biomes.
• Geographic Location: Middle East.
• Summary: These forests feature a unique mosaic of plant formations adapted to harsh climatic conditions and are recognized as the southernmost limits for charismatic tree species—but they are threatened by human activity.

The Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests biome, located in the heart of the Middle East, lies across the Mediterranean Sea coasts of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Palestine. The forests are home to diverse bird species, as many migratory pathways cross above the area. Eastern Mediterranean countries have a high rate of endemism, or incidence of unique species found nowhere else, with many of them presenting interconnected communities due to paleogeographical and historical patterns. The floristic richness and high endemism rate reflect the ancient origins of these forests. The vegetation cover is a mosaic of three groups of plants; the broadleaf sclerophyllous, also called maquis; the mixed coniferous forests and oak woodlands; and the steppe formations.

Broadleaf forests took hold in the Near East before stands of sclerophyllous (having hard, closely-spaced leaves) oak appeared in any significant numbers, except in Syria. Maquis formations comprise kermes oak, laurel, carob, Judas tree, terebenth, and lentisk, along with many species of shrubs, climbers, annuals, and perennials. Myrtle, broom, thorn bush, sage, oregano, ivy, and smilax are part of this formation. All of them are relatively long-lived and resistant, which no doubt explains why the ancient Greeks and Romans considered such evergreen plants as myrtle and laurel to be symbols of love, strength, and eternity.

Conifer and deciduous mixed forests are found in southwestern Anatolia and Taurus in Turkey; and in the Levantine uplands between Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, and Jordan. They shelter a variety of tree species: Lebanese cedar; Cilician fir; juniper; Aleppo and Calabrian pine; Turkey oak; alder; storax; three-lobbed apple; hop-hornbeam and buckthorn.

While the Cilician fir, Lebanese cedar, Turkey oak, and hop-hornbeam have their southernmost limits in the Western Lebanese Mountain chain, Aleppo pine and Phoenician juniper are found sporadically in Jordan. Lebanese cedar grows in Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon. The current distribution of Aleppo pine, kermes oak, carob, and evergreen cypress is probably linked to human management rather than to strictly natural ecological factors.

Steppe formations, widespread in such arid bioclimates, constitute a transition zone in biogeographical and ecological terms between the Sahara and the Mediterranean region. Their vegetation, showing little variation, is composed of wormwood, shrubby horsetail, sunrose, and other scrubland species.

Wildlife

Eastern Mediterranean forests are home to various species of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates. Resident animals tend to be small carnivores, such as the badger, stone marten, red fox, and Egyptian mongoose. Large mammals such as gazelles are mainly confined to southeastern Turkey; the caracal inhabits the arid, hilly steppe desert and mountain terrain to which it is adapted; and the wild boar is found in wooded hills and forests. Other large animals inhabiting these forests are the hyena, wolf, and golden jackal. In Lebanon, one may find rare mammals such as the swamp cat and common species such as Persian squirrel and the Indian porcupine, while a diminishing number of bears lives in the Syrian mountains.

Native birds include the flamingo and pelican, as well as various ducks, snipe, and other game birds. There is high diversity of insects and other invertebrates in the region. Many have developed close associations with specific plants, and are now entirely dependent on the presence of those plants for their survival.

Effects of Human Activity

Anthropogenic activities in the eastern regions of the Mediterranean Basin date back thousands of years. Throughout time, uninterrupted human pressure has led to the extinction of the majority of the large species, especially ungulates. Historically, timber extracted from the coniferous forests has been used for the production of all kinds of tools, as well as in the construction of temples and boats for the succeeding civilizations of the region.

Today, the Mediterranean forests here are vulnerable and fragile. Their sustainability is threatened by rapid population growth, overexploitation for fuelwood, clearing for agriculture, and overgrazing. Changes in communities’ composition and extinction of local populations, along with the regressive evolution of Mediterranean forests, are threatening the biodiversity.

These forests are exposed to extreme climatic constraints. Variations in climatic conditions and global warming affects soil characteristics and makes the soil susceptible to biotic and nonbiotic risks. Changes in climate and land use have resulted in forest degradation, deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, and expansion of forest fires in Lebanon and Syria. The introduction of exotic species has caused biotic invasion, while altering the landscapes and decreasing native biodiversity.

Conservation Efforts

International conservation organizations have defined 10 hot spots in the Mediterranean basin with varying degrees of conservation priority. National conservation plans have targeted the forests with the declaration of Protected Areas, Important Bird Areas, and Biosphere Reserves. Biodiversity protection and management approaches followed strict conservation principles in their early stages; these principles were replaced at later stages by the cosmovision approach to sustainability, in which humans are considered to be part of the environment. This is crucial, as the long-term interaction between humans and nature in this area cannot be neglected, and has indeed been reflected by the mosaics of cultural landscapes.

Bibliography

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