Meghalaya subtropical forests
Meghalaya subtropical forests, located in the northeastern state of India, represent one of the most biodiverse ecoregions in the country, covering approximately 16,100 square miles (41,700 square kilometers) across the Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia Hills. Known for their montane subtropical moist broadleaf forests, these areas are notably the wettest in India, with annual rainfall surpassing thirty-six feet (11 meters), particularly around Cherrapunjee and Mawsynram, two of the wettest places in the world. The region is rich in flora, featuring a variety of forest types, including tropical evergreen and semievergreen forests, and is home to over 300 species of orchids and unique plants such as the pitcher plant (Nepenthes khasiana).
The fauna of the Meghalaya subtropical forests is equally diverse, hosting over 110 mammal species and around 450 bird species, some of which are globally threatened. Significant species include the endangered tiger, clouded leopard, and various hornbills that rely on mature trees for nesting. However, these forests face serious challenges due to human activities such as shifting cultivation, mining, and urbanization, leading to habitat fragmentation and declining ecological health. Conservation efforts are underway, focusing on protecting traditional sacred groves and establishing small protected areas, but the balance between preserving biodiversity and meeting human needs remains delicate. Climate change and unsustainable land use practices further complicate the challenges faced by this vital ecosystem.
Meghalaya subtropical forests
- Category: Forest Biomes
- Geography Location: Asia
- Summary: The Meghalaya subtropical forests have shown shocking transformation in recent decades as forest reserves have been exploited for shifting cultivation, mining, and human infrastructure requirements.
The Meghalaya Subtropical Forests biome is one of the most species-rich ecoregions of India. This zone typically comprises montane subtropical moist broadleaf forests, and is spread over 16,100 square miles (41,700 square kilometers) of the Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia Hills. Based in Meghalaya state, it is the wettest ecoregion in India, receiving annual rainfall of more than thirty-six feet (eleven meters). Cherrapunjee and Mawsynram, located in the southern part, receive perhaps the greatest amount of rainfall of anywhere in the world.
In biogeographic classification, these forests are located in the Indo-Malayan realm; they are known for their remarkable range and number of mammals, plants, and birds. Throughout the forests are long trails of more than 300 species of orchids. The biome is also a dynamic resource base for timber, cane, bamboo, cane grass, medicinal plants, honey, wax, and mushrooms. Many rare plants found here are confined to sacred groves, which are remnants of past climate vegetation, and are almost untouched due to religious beliefs.
The land is largely owned by communities and tribes, and therefore regulated differently from other states in India. The rapid fall in the forest cover can be attributed to shifting cultivation, coal and limestone mining, urbanization, and industrialization. Due to expanding the human population, the pressure on the forest land for cultivation has increased, and consequently, the Jhum cycle, or periodic shifting of cultivation, has been reduced to two to three years instead of the traditional ten to fifteen. The resulting damage to the region includes high levels of acidity in the soil and water.
Floral Biodiversity
The major forest types of this ecoregion are the Assam subtropical hill savanna, Khasi subtropical hill forest, Assam subtropical pine forest, and Assam subtropical pine savanna. The floral dimension is considerable, and distribution includes tropical evergreen forests, tropical semievergreen forests, tropical moist and deciduous forests, temperate forests, and subtropical pine forests. These forest types are located at different elevations, with high to low rainfall patterns.
The tropical evergreen forests are in low-lying areas with large amounts of rainfall, and are characterized by species such as Bischofia javanica, Fermiana colorata, Pterygota alata, Mesua ferrea, Castonopsis indica, Talauma hodgsonii, Pterospermum acerifolium, and Acrocarpus fracinifolius. The tropical semievergreen forests are at elevations up to 3,937 feet (1,200 meters), with annual rainfall of 49 to 66 feet (15 to 20 meters). Dominant species here include Eleocarpus floribundus, Dillenia pentagyna, Dillenia indica, and Hovenia acerba. Tropical moist and deciduous forests have less than 49 feet (15 meters) of annual rainfall; vegetation includes Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Terminalia myriocarpa, Tetrameles nudiflora, and Schimawallichii.
Though no typical grasslands or savannas are found here, some unique types have developed due to favorable interactions of climate, topography, and other biotic factors. The species of such areas appear across the tops of the Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia Hills, including Saccarum spontanuem, Neyraudia reynaudiania, Chrysopogon aciculatus, and Setaria glauca. Some patches of temperate forests—with species such as Lethocarpus fenestratus, Castanopsis kurzi, Quercus griffithii, Quercus semiserrata, and Myrica esculenta—are also present near the southern slopes of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. Subtropical pine forests of Pinus khesia are strictly confined to the Shillong Plateau. Their forest cover is closely woven with a high-density growth of bamboos and canes. The most common species identified is Dendrocalamus hamiltonii.
As the ecoregion has suffered multiple disturbances in its vegetation cover, some species once popular in the state have become threatened. Ferns such as Dipteris wallichii and Cyathea gigantea have become rare in Meghalaya. Llex embloides, Styrax hookerii, and Fissistigma verrucosum are considered to be extremely rare, but were collected from sacred groves recently. Several orchid species such as Dendrobium, Pleione, and Vanda have ornamental value and have become rare. The most important example of endemic (not found elsewhere) flora in this ecoregion is the pitcher plant (Nepenthes khasiana), found in limited distribution in the Khasi Hills only.
Faunal Biodiversity
The Meghalaya Subtropical Forests ecoregion is reported to have over 110 species of mammals, but none are known to be endemic. Important species include the endangered tiger (Panthera tigris), the vulnerable clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), the endangered Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), the endangered dhole (Cuon alpinus), the vulnerable sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), the endangered Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), the near threatened Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis), the vulnerable capped leaf monkey (Trachypithecus pileatus), and the hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock). Bats are ubiquitous.
The ecoregion has a large gathering of bird fauna. It coincides with two Endemic Bird Areas: the Assam Hills and the Eastern Himalayas. About 450 species of birds are found here. Almost every species is near-endemic, with five species completely endemic: the endangered Manipur bush quail (Perdicula manipurensis), the vulnerable marsh babbler (Pellorneum palustre), brown-capped laughing thrush (Trochalopteron austeni), tawny-breasted wren babbler (Spelaeronis longicaudatus), and wedge-billed wren babbler (Sphenocichla humei).
Other globally threatened species spotted in the Meghalaya subtropical forests include the rufous-necked hornbill, white-winged duck, Pallas’s fish eagle, Blyth’s kingfisher, black-breasted parrotbill, dark-rumped swift, and beautiful nuthatch. The wreathed hornbill (Rhyticeros undulatus), Tickell's brown hornbill (Anorrhinus tickelli), and great hornbill (Buceros bicornis) are indicators of intact habitat. These birds are entirely dependent on mature trees for nesting and laying eggs. If the habitats are fragmented, their populations will decline. In 2020, the great hornbill was classified as vulnerable on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species and the Tickell's brown hornbill was classified as near threatened. In 2018, the wreathed hornbill was classified as vulnerable.
Protected Areas
Over two-thirds of the ecoregion was fragmented by 2020. To conserve and enhance the natural resources, small protected areas have been delineated. Those owned by the state forest department are diverse and support a large number of species, which are important with respect to biodiversity. Also, patches of habitats are traditionally protected because of the high religious value placed on the area by Indigenous peoples.
Two vital protected areas are the Baghmara pitcher-plant sanctuary for the conservation of the endangered tropical Nepenthes khasiana, and Nokrek National Park in the Garo Hills for management of rare citrus taxa. The population of elephants from Assam migrate comfortably through the habitat areas of the ecoregion.
Environmental Threats and Existing Policies
The major threat to the Meghalaya subtropical forests is uncontrolled land use. Cultivation is unsustainably practiced; mining activities and overexploitation of ornamental plants and medicinal plants further accelerate damage to the environment. The aquatic vegetation of the ecoregion is compromised by refuse from mining processes. As the quality of water decreases due to discharge of highly acidic or alkaline mining waste, the amount of dissolved oxygen for aquatic flora declines.
Conservation and restoration practices should synchronize with traditional practices of this region. The major guiding policies are the 1988 forest policy and other state and tribal laws; the need is to merge them with urban growth strategies, so that the unique biodiversity of this ecoregion does not disappear. Climate change impacts include changes in rainfall amounts and seasonal timing, which would have a direct impact on the flora and fauna of this diverse ecosystem. Forest fires also increasingly threaten the region as seasonal rainfall decreases.
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