Great Plains

The Great Plains, once called the Great American Desert due to the scarcity of rainfall and its relatively featureless geography, is a vast area stretching from southern Canada through Texas. Once inhabited by immense herds of bison and many other unique species, as well as various American Indian peoples (known as First Nations in Canada), the region has become one of the richest and most efficient agricultural areas in the world.

The Great Plains region is bordered by the Rocky Mountains and the southwestern desert to the west, the Canadian forests and tundra to the north, and the Mexican desert to the south. There is a difficult to define boundary to the east, running through or along the states of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Oklahoma and Texas. From north to south, the plains measure approximately 3,000 miles, and from east to west anywhere from 300 to 700 miles. The total area is about 1,125,000 square miles, and includes all or part of the states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Texas. It also covers the southern parts of Canada's Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan provinces, which are known as the Prairie Provinces.

As a geographic plain (part of the even broader North American Interior Plains), the Great Plains region is characterized by its flat topography. This was formed by the existence of the Western Interior Seaway, an inland sea of the Cretaceous Period. The Great Plains are also dominated by a semi-arid prairie or grassland ecosystem, with few trees. However, the area is not completely homogenous, and geographers and geologists often identify distinct subregions including the northern, intermediate, central, and southern Great Plains. Other narrower subregions are identified according to various criteria, and include unique places such as the Black Hills in South Dakota and so-called Tornado Alley in the southeast. A number of rivers flow through the plains, including the Missouri, Platte, Republican, Arkansas, Cimarron, and Canadian rivers, along with their numerous tributaries. The area receives inconsistent rainfall; some years plentiful, other years the plains suffer drought conditions.

Early History

The area known as the Great Plains was inhabited by indigenous peoples from prehistoric times. Though the precise period in which Paleo-Indians first arrived in the region is unclear and disputed, there is evidence of human inhabitation by about 9500 BCE at least. Over time, various cultures emerged in the in the area. Tribes from other parts of North America also made use of the resources of the Great Plains, with some remaining there as social and economic factors changed. Most historians believe the broadly defined Plains culture that existed at the time of European contact was derived mainly from later waves of American Indian settlement rather than the original Paleo-Indian inhabitants, although the relationship between the various groups is uncertain.

The American Indian cultures that came to be known as Plains Indians included a diverse array of tribes across the full expanse of the Great Plains. These included the Cheyenne, Sioux, Arapaho, Wichita, Pawnee, Kiowa, and Comanche. While many of these groups had very different cultural practices, they were all shaped by the plains environment. For many, hunting bison was crucial to subsistence. The need to follow bison herds, as well as the general harsh climate and scarcity of water, meant most Plains peoples lived nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyles.

The Spanish were the first Europeans to view the Great Plains. They described the area as a treeless grassland with little vegetation, and monotonously level with no recognizable features or landmarks. The Spanish sent expedition after expedition to look for gold or fabled cities in the plains but found nothing of value, viewing with disbelief the vast herds of bison that sometimes stretched as far as the eye could see. They also encountered Indian tribes who lived in the area. Many of these tribes found their culture changed by the European introduction of horses to the continent.

In time, the Spanish explorers left, and colonial and then US explorers and settlers began to enter the Great Plains. At first, small groups of travelers crossed the plains on their way to Oregon or California, but eventually large numbers came to settle on the land and call it their own. With the spread of ranching operations, the region was a key setting for the development of the cowboy culture that would become iconic in the American imagination. Whenever gold or silver was discovered in Indian lands, the rush to exploit the discoveries was even more overwhelming. No treaty signed by the American government lasted long, and the Indians lost control of their land piece by piece.

The Sioux, Cheyenne, Ute, Apache, and many other tribes resisted this encroachment, and fought many wars against the US military. Though at times they found success as their skilled warriors proved formidable fighters, they were ultimately no match for the greater numbers and advanced technology of US forces. Massacres were committed by both sides during thirty years of conflict, causing such hatred that women and children were often targeted along with soldiers or warriors. Notable incidents included the Sand Creek Massacre (1864), the Red River War (1874–75), the Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876), and the Wounded Knee massacre (1890). By the end of the nineteenth century, the Indians were largely conquered and forced to live on reservations, typically away from their traditional lands.

Agriculture

Agriculture became the dominant economic focus of the settlers in the Great Plains. Wheat, corn, cotton, and many other crops were planted in the fertile soil. Huge cattle ranches also developed, perhaps most famously in northern Texas. Small farms dotted the landscape as the population grew steadily. This growth came at the expense of the native ecosystem, as the vast expanses of prairie grasses were all but destroyed. Bison were hunted to near extinction, and many other species also suffered from direct hunting, habitat loss, or both. These included pronghorns, black-footed ferrets, prairie dogs, sage grouse, and locusts.

Increased demand for wheat led to an environmental disaster during the 1930s. Farmers expanded their cultivated acreage and planted in areas that usually were reserved for cattle. When the demand for wheat eased, the cattle came back to the now disturbed soil. This, along with several periods of extreme drought and heavy winds caused the soil to be blown away into the atmosphere in enormous dust clouds. The effect was devastating, as months of dust storms destroyed farms and made life nearly unbearable. The Great Plains became known as the Dust Bowl, and many thousands of small farmers had to leave the area. Eventually, the drought ended and improved farming methods were introduced to avoid repetition of the effect, but for thousands of families, the economic damage was already done.

During the rest of the twentieth century, the Great Plains grew in agricultural productivity, largely due to intensive irrigation and widespread use of pesticides and herbicides. This was both good and bad for the people who lived in the region. Small farmers had more and more difficulty making profits due to the expense of modern equipment combined with falling prices for crops. Slowly, large corporate agriculture businesses took over control of enormous tracts of land formerly owned by small farmers. With the failure of most small family farms, many people left the Great Plains states for other parts of the country. Populations in rural communities shrank, and some towns even became ghost towns. Great Plains states were often slow to address this trend and diversify the economy in the region.

Great Plains in the Twenty-First Century

The agricultural importance of the Great Plains remains in the twenty-first century, as farms in the region produce much of the food vital to the US economy. However, the population as a whole grew much more urban, as well as more diverse. Efforts have also been made to preserve and restore the few remaining patches of original, uncultivated prairie. The parks and refuges maintaining such landscapes not only provide visitors a sense of what the region was like before European settlement, but also are important in protecting native species. Studying prairie ecology also helps scientists better understand how to avoid environmental disasters such as the Dust Bowl.

Despite such efforts, the Great Plains continues to face serious environmental challenges. Native species struggle against ongoing habitat fragmentation as well as competition from invasive species. Heavy irrigation and other water demands lead to fears of aquifer depletion, including of the major Ogallala Aquifer located under the southern plains. The 2010s also saw major growth in the oil and gas industries in the region, due to technology such as hydraulic fracturing (fracking) that allowed the exploitation of formerly inaccessible energy resources. The Bakken Shale Formation in North Dakota in particular became a source of rapid development that provided an economic boost but further threatened wildlife. Even renewable energy technology such as wind farms, which are well suited to the open areas of the plains, have environmental downsides such as danger to bird species.

In addition, the Great Plains are threatened by climate change, much like other sensitive ecoregions. Scientists suggest that human-induced global warming will likely contribute to more erratic and extreme weather in the area, ranging from droughts to floods.