Mali

Full name of country: Republic of Mali

Region: Africa

Official language: French

Population: 21,990,607 (2024 est.)

Nationality: Malian(s) (noun), Malian (adjective)

Land area: 1,220,190 sq km (471,118 sq miles)

Water area: 20,002 sq km (7,723 sq miles)

Capital: Bamako

National anthem: "Le Mali" (Mali), by Seydou Badian Kouyate/Banzoumana Sissoko

National holiday: Independence Day, September 22 (1960)

Population growth: 2.9% (2024 est.)

Time zone: UTC +0

Flag: Mali’s flag is a vertical tricolor of green, yellow, and red, representing the pan-African colors.

Motto: “Un peuple, un but, une foi” (One people, one goal, one faith)

Independence: September 22, 1960 (from France)

Government type: semi-presidential republic

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal

Legal system: civil law system based on the French civil law model and influenced by customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in Constitutional Court

The Republic of Mali, one of the largest countries in West Africa, is also one of the poorest countries in the world. Formerly known as the Sudanese Republic, the country has experienced decades of political corruption and unrest. Environmental problems such as drought and desertification threaten the Malian economy. Mali's government continues its efforts to institute political, economic, and educational reforms in an effort to improve conditions in the country, but significant development challenges remain.

People and Culture

Population: The people of Mali are known as Malians. Several ethnic groups are found in the country. The Bambara people are the largest group, accounting for 33.3 percent of the total population. The second-largest group is the Peuhl (also called Fula or Fulani) people, a significant number of whom are nomadic, who make up 13.3 percent of the population. The Soninke (or Sarakole or Marka) and the Mandinka (or Malinke) peoples, accounting for 9.8 percent and 8.8 percent respectively, live in western Mali. Other groups include the Senufo people, at 9.6 percent; the Dogon people, at 8.7 percent; the Sonrai people, at 5.9 percent; the Bobo people, at 2.1 percent; and the Tuareg (or Bella), at 1.7 percent. Other Malian make up about 6 percent (2018 estimates).

Most of the population lives in the southern part of the country; the capital, Bamako, had a metro population of approximately 2.929 million in 2023. Other large cities and municipalities include Sikasso (population 144,786), Koutiala (population 99,353), Ségou (population 92,552), and Kayes (population 78,406) (2020 estimates from World Bank). About 46.2 percent of the population lived in urban areas in 2023. Approximately 10 percent of the population is nomadic.

In addition to the official language of French, Mali has thirteen national languages. Bambara, part of the Mandé language family, is the principal language of 46.3 percent of the population. Other widely spoken languages include Fula (or Fulfulde), spoken by 9.4 percent of the population; Dogon languages, spoken by 7.2 percent; Soninke, spoken by 6.4 percent; Maninka (or Malinke), spoken by 5.6 percent; and Zarma (or Djerma), a Songhai language, spoken by 5.6 percent (2009 estimates).

The majority of the population, approximately 93.9 percent, is Muslim. Another 2.8 percent of the population practice Christianity, 0.7 percent adhere to animist beliefs, and 2.5 percent are not religious (2018 estimates).

Native People: Archaeological evidence shows that northern Mali has been inhabited for fifty thousand years. Long ago, this area of the Sahara Desert was fertile grassland. Farming was introduced to the area around 5000 BCE, and large communities had developed by 300 BCE.

Beginning in the first century, Mali was ruled by three successive kingdoms, each of which contributed to the country's modern-day ethnic composition. The Ghana Empire, which ruled until the eleventh century, comprised Soninke people. The Kingdom of Malinke followed, until it was displaced in the fifteenth century by the Songhai Empire. Each of these empires survived by trading gold, salt, and slaves.

After the decline of the Songhai, European ships began arriving in West African ports. France occupied the region in the late 1800s and established the territory of French Sudan in 1904. In 1958, the Sudanese Republic (comprising Mali and Senegal) gained independence from France. The federation broke apart in 1960 and the Sudanese Republic became Mali.

Education: Primary school is ostensibly free and compulsory in Mali for children between the ages of six and fifteen. However, there is a shortage of school buildings and materials, and many eligible students do not complete their education because their families cannot afford to buy supplies. In 2019, of all Malian children of primary school age, only about 85.8 percent of boys and 73.8 percent of girls attended primary school.

The average Malian adult has less than one year of formal schooling. However, in 2017, the average school life expectancy (primary to tertiary education) was seven years, or eight for boys and seven for girls. The average adult literacy rate is low, at 35.5 percent—46.2 percent among men and 25.7 percent among women (2018 estimate). The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and other international agencies are campaigning to improve education for all students in Mali.

There is a national university in Bamako, with several campuses spread throughout the city.

Health Care: Health care in Mali is poor. The country has one of the highest infant mortality rates in the world, at 57.4 deaths for every 1,000 live births (2024 estimate). The maternal mortality rate is also high, at 440 deaths for every 100,000 live births (2020 estimate). However, the adult prevalence rate HIV/AIDS infection is lower in Mali than in many other African countries, at .9 percent (2020 estimate).

Immunization rates are low. Diseases such as diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever, malaria, schistosomiasis, and meningitis are prevalent.

Life expectancy at birth is relatively low, at 60.9 years for men and 65.6 years for women (2024 estimate). In 2022, Mali was ranked 188 out of 193 countries and territories on the United Nations Human Development Index, which measures quality-of-life indicators.

Food: As in many West African countries, staple foods in Mali include rice, millet, sweet potatoes, plantains, beans, and manioc. Common dishes in Mali are poulet yassa (grilled chicken in sauce), riz yollof (vegetables or meat cooked in tomato sauce), and couscous.

Fish is commonly eaten in areas near the Niger River. The pods and seeds of the baobab tree are also eaten; the seeds are often roasted and eaten as a snack.

Arts & Entertainment: Folk music in Mali is based on the traditions of the Bambara, Soninke, and Mandinka, all of whom are subgroups of the Mandé peoples. Traditional musical instruments include the kora, a large stringed instrument; ngoni, similar to a lute; and several types of drums.

Musicians in Mali are known as jeliw (or griot) and come from a hereditary caste of musicians. Internationally famous blues musician Ali Farka Touré was born in Mali. Other famous Malian musicians include Salif Keita and Toumani Diabaté.

The Djenne region of Mali is famous for the sculptures of gold, terra cotta, and bronze produced there. Bambara artisans are skilled woodcarvers and mask makers. The best-known West African symbol is a chiwara, a headpiece carved in the shape of an antelope and used in dances.

The country's Muslim heritage is reflected in the architecture of mosques and other buildings. Islam prohibits the depiction of humans or other living creatures in art.

Holidays: Malians celebrate their independence from France on Independence Day (September 22). Other national holidays include Army Day (January 20), Workers’ Day (May 1), and Africa Day (May 25). The martyrs of the 1991 revolution are remembered on March 26.

Environment and Geography

Topography: Mali is a landlocked country, bordered on the north by Algeria, on the east by Niger, on the south by Côte d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso, on the southwest by Guinea, and on the west by Senegal and Mauritania.

The country is mostly flat, and roughly 65 percent of its area is either desert or semidesert. Mali may be divided into five distinct regions: the Sahara Desert in the north, flat farmland in the south, hilly forests in the west, the central savannah (the Sahel), and the Niger River delta.

The country's highest point is at the top of the Hombori Tondo mesa, 1,155 meters (3,789 feet) above sea level.

The Niger River flows 1,626 kilometers (1,010 miles) from southwestern Mali up to Timbuktu, then bends southeast toward the Atlantic. Mali depends heavily on this river for water and food. The Niger is the third-longest river in Africa. The Bafing River also flows through Mali, and later joins the Semefé to form the Senegal River.

Natural Resources: Mali was known in ancient times for its gold mines, and gold continues to be mined in the country. Other mineral resources include kaolin, salt, limestone, uranium, gypsum, and granite. There are also reserves of iron ore, tin, copper, manganese, and bauxite that have yet to be exploited.

The country faces severe environmental problems due to drought and desertification. Overgrazing has resulted in the erosion of topsoil, allowing the desert to encroach further on the land. The shortage of drinkable water is also a problem.

Plants & Animals: Mali's plant life varies according to region. There is very little vegetation in the Sahara, but some trees such as mimosa, gum trees, and acacias survive there. In the more fertile Sahel region, date palms and baobab trees flourish.

Drought has affected the country's animal population. Many animals are found in Mali's four protected national parks, such as the Bafing National Park, which is home to a number of chimpanzees.

Wild animals found in Mali include several species of antelope, gazelles, and desert foxes. Typical African animals such as cheetahs, lions, giraffes, and hippopotamuses are found near the Niger River, and elephants also migrate through Mali.

Birds, including eagles, ostriches, and vultures, are abundant in Mali. Many species, including ibis, pelicans, ducks, herons, and kingfishers are found along the river.

Climate: Temperatures in Mali are typically very hot, with an average of 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit) during the day. The temperature drops significantly at night, however, falling as low as 18 degrees to 20 degrees Celsius (64 degrees to 68 degrees Fahrenheit).

The hottest months of the year are between April and July. The rainy season, characterized by thunderstorms and heavy downpours, lasts from June to October. The southern part of Mali receives the most rainfall, averaging around 1,120 millimeters (44 inches) annually. Timbuktu, in the center of the country, receives an average of 140 millimeters (5.5 inches) per year.

The hot, dusty, dry harmattan wind blows from the Sahara Desert and spreads a fine dust over Mali's cities until June. The cooler alizé blows from November to January.

Economy

Centuries ago, Mali was one of the richest empires in the world. Caravans passing through the country carried rich cargoes of gold and salt. Today, Mali is one of the poorest countries in the world. In 2023, the gross domestic product (GDP, purchasing power parity) was estimated at $57.235 billion, or $2,500 per capita.

The economy primarily relies on agriculture, with cotton and livestock being the chief exports aside from gold. Approximately 80 percent of the workforce was engaged in farming or fishing in the 2000s. Cotton and gold exports typically account for the majority of Mali's export earnings.

Mali relies on foreign aid to combat fluctuations in the prices of its exports. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is also helping the country diversify its economy and attract foreign investment.

Industry: Mining, mostly for gold, is the chief industry in Mali. Other minerals are mined to a smaller extent. Manufacturing is limited to the processing of agricultural products. Principal imports include petroleum, machinery, construction materials, foodstuffs, and textiles.

Mali's main trading partners for imports are France, Senegal, the Cote d’Ivoire, and China. The country’s main trading partners for exports are Switzerland, United Arab Emirates, Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, South Africa and Bangladesh.

Agriculture: Only a small portion of land in Mali is arable; pasture covers a signficant percentage of the country's land area, and in 2011, permanent crops covered only 0.1 percent of the country’s land.

Most agricultural production takes place on small farms, which grow sorghum, millet, and maize. Cotton is an important cash crop. Rice is grown along the Niger River, and wheat and groundnuts (peanuts) are grown in the eastern part of the country. In 2004, locusts decimated the country's grain crops, putting many Malians at risk for starvation.

Livestock is an important part of the agricultural sector; cattle, sheep, and goats are all raised by Malian farmers. Droughts have a devastating effect on the country's herds. There is also a significant commercial fishing industry centered on the Niger River.

Tourism: Tourism is a small part of the Malian economy, and made difficult by conflict and political instability. The country's transportation system is underdeveloped. A rail line from Bamako to Senegal is the chief means of transportation in Mali. Most roads are unpaved.

According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, tourism accounted for 6.6 percent overall of the Mali's GDP and for 3.9 percent of total employment in 2022, though political instability and the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in the early 2020s negatively impacted the sector. Tourists come to Mali to view the wildlife in the country's national parks, see ancient cities such as Timbuktu, and witness the migration of elephants through the country.

Government

Mali suffered instability after gaining independence from France in 1960. Socialism remained in place even after the country's first president was overthrown in a 1968 military coup. A multiparty political system was not introduced until 1991. The present constitution was adopted on January 12, 1992, amended in 1999, and briefly suspended in 2012.

In 1990, the Tuareg people led an uprising, maintaining that the government had ignored their plight in the aftermath of an extended drought. Peace was restored in 1995, with the promise of better representation for the Tuareg in the national government. Tuareg rebels continued to commit acts of violence into the twenty-first century, and separatists seized control of northern Mali in April 2012, declaring independence and imposing Islamic law there. The French military intervened in 2013, capturing the Tuareg-held cities of Gao, Timbuktu, and Kidal and retraining the Malian army.

The Malian government signed a peace deal with Tuareg rebels in June 2013. However, tensions between the Malian government and Tuareg separatists increased in 2014 and 2015. Nine United Nations peacekeepers were killed in October 2014 between the northeastern towns of Menaka and Ansongo, and five additional peacekeepers were killed in July 2015 near the northern city of Goundam by al Qaeda-backed separatists. In July 2015, the representatives of the Malian government and the northern rebels signed a peace accord. However, the cease-fire was not effective in stopping violent conflict.

Mali's government went through further upheaval beginning in August 2020, when a military coup overthrew president Ibrahim Boubacar Keita. An interim government was installed by the military junta, and given up to eighteen months to hold a general election. However, this government was in turn deposed in another coup in May 2021 led by the interim vice president, Colonel Assimi Goita, who claimed to prioritize national security over elections. The political volatility was widely condemned by the international community and, together with ongoing ethnic conflict, contributed to a fragile humanitarian situation throughout the country.

According to the 1992 constitution, Mali's executive branch consists of the president, who acts as the chief of state, and the prime minister, who is the head of the government. The president is popularly elected to a five-year term, and the prime minister is appointed by the president.

The legislature is the unicameral Assemblée Nationale (National Assembly), with 147 members elected to serve five-year terms. However, the National Assembly was dissolved after the 2020 military coup. The nominal legal system is based on French law, and the highest court is the Cour Supreme (Supreme Court).

The country is divided into eight administrative regions—Gao, Kayes, Kidal, Koulikoro, Mopti, Ségou, Sikasso, and Timbuktu—as well as the district of Bamako.

Interesting Facts

• The mosque at Djenne is the largest mud-brick building in the world and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Timbuktu is home to the mosques of Sankoré, Djinguereber, and Sidi Yahya, three of the oldest mosques in Africa, built in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. These mosques collectively made up a center of learning now referred to as the University of Timbuktu; although not a university in the modern sense, it is often cited as one of the world's earliest universities.
• The prime meridian (0 degrees longitude) passes through the Malian city of Gao, where visitors to the site can stand with one foot in the Eastern Hemisphere and one in the Western Hemisphere.

Bibliography

"Human Development Insights." Human Development Reports, United Nations Development Programme, 13 Mar. 2024, hdr.undp.org/data-center/country-insights#/ranks. Accessed 15 Jan. 2025.

" Mali." The World Bank, 2024, data.worldbank.org/country/mali. Accessed 15 Jan. 2025.

"Mali." The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 2 Jan. 2025., www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mali/. Accessed 15 Jan. 2025.

"Mali." United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, www.unicef.org/mali/en/education. Accessed 4 Dec. 2023.

Mali—2023 Annual Research: Key Highlights. World Travel & Tourism Council, 2023, researchhub.wttc.org/factsheets/mali. Accessed 4 Dec. 2023.