Northern Ireland

Region: Europe

Population: 1,910,500 (2022 est., Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency)

Nationality: Northern Irishman(men)/Irishwoman(women) or Briton(s), British (collective plural) (noun), Northern Irish or British (adjective)

Land area: 14,135 sq km (5,458 sq miles)

Capital: Belfast

National holiday: Battle of the Boyne (Orangemen's Day) July 12 (1690)

Population growth: 0.3% (2022 est., Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency)

Time zone: UTC +0

Flag: The government of Northern Ireland uses the Union flag (or Union Jack). The Union flag consists of a blue background with a white St. George’s Cross, a red St. Andrew’s Cross, and a red St. Patrick’s Cross. A flag for Northern Ireland was adopted in 1953 and taken away officially in 1972 when the government of Northern Ireland was disbanded. It is still used unofficially and features a white field with a red St. George's Cross. In the center of the cross is a six-pointed white star (representing the six counties of Ulster that form Northern Ireland) with a red hand at the center of the star and topped with a gold crown.

Independence: December 6, 1921 (Anglo-Irish Treaty formalizes partition of Ireland; six counties remain part of the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland); April 12, 1927 (Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act establishes current name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland); notable earlier dates: 1801 (Acts of Union formally unite Great Britain and Ireland as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland);

Government type: Constituent country of the United Kingdom, which is a constitutional monarchy and Commonwealth realm. Northern Ireland has a devolved government, the Northern Ireland Assembly, which handles domestic issues and law separate from the United Kingdom government.

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal

Legal system: Law system based on common law and statute passed by Northern Ireland Assembly or Westiminster Parliament.

Northern Ireland is a country or region within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK). Located in the northeastern portion of the island of Ireland, Northern Ireland consists of six counties: Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry (Derry), and Tyrone. It is bordered by the Republic of Ireland to the south. While it is the most industrialized part of the island, Northern Ireland is also known for its scenic countryside and beautiful coastline.

This history of Northern Ireland as a political entity is rooted in British involvement in Ireland as a whole, as the region remained part of the UK after the rest of Ireland fought for independence in the late 1910s and early 1920s. Through the latter half of the twentieth century, Northern Ireland was torn by religious and political strife between its Protestant and Catholic inhabitants. This period of violence, known as The Troubles, was closely connected to disagreement over whether Northern Ireland should remain part of the UK or be incorporated into the Republic of Ireland. The conflict was largely brought to an end with the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, which affirmed that Northern Ireland would remain part of the United Kingdom but with strong ties to Ireland. However, some sectarian tensions have continued.

People and Culture

Population: From the late 1990s into the 2020s, Northern Ireland experienced slow but steady population growth. Most people live in urban areas, although farming remains an important part of life for many families. The largest city is Belfast, the capital. Other major urban areas include Londonderry/Derry and Armagh.

English is the official language throughout the UK and the most widely spoken language in Northern Ireland. Irish (or Gaelic) and Ulster Scots are also culturally important languages in the region, and over the years they have gained various levels of official acknowledgement, including through the Identity and Language (Northern Ireland) Act 2022. Irish is spoken to some extent by about 10 percent of the Northern Irish population. It is sometimes taught in schools, particularly Catholic institutions. A smaller number of people in Northern Ireland speak Ulster Scots, which some consider its own language and others view as a dialect of Scots.

The vast majority of the people living in Northern Ireland are White Europeans of English, Irish, or Scottish heritage. Ethnic identity tends to be closely associated with either Catholic or Protestant religious background. By the time Ireland was partitioned by UK authorities in the early 1920s, Protestants (including Presbyterians, Anglicans, and Methodists, among other denominations) made up the majority of the Northern Irish population, in contrast to the Catholic majority throughout the rest of the island. This dynamic held until the 2011 census showed that the number of people in the region who either were Protestant or had been brought up Protestant had fallen below 50 percent for the first time, to 48 percent. Meanwhile, the number of people who either were Catholic or had been brought up Catholic had grown to 45 percent of the population. Of the remainder, 0.9 percent either belonged to or had been brought up in other religions, and 5.6 percent professed no religion by either belief or background. This gradual shift continued in the results of the 2021 census, which found the Protestant share had declined to 43.5 percent, the Catholic share had increased to 45.7 percent, the non-religious share increased to 9.3 percent, and the share of other religions increased to 1.5 percent.

The population's split between Protestants and Catholics reflects the deep social and political divisions that have dominated Northern Ireland's history. UK government policy long favored Protestants over Catholics in Ireland, which contributed to both the breakaway of the Catholic-majority Republic of Ireland and the Protestant-majority Northern Ireland's decision to stay part of the UK. Protestants have continued to make up the majority of unionists, or those who support the UK government. Extremist unionists who in the past promoted violence and paramilitary action in support of their beliefs are typically called Ulster loyalists (Ulster being an old name for the region that makes up modern-day Northern Ireland and three counties of the Republic of Ireland). The Ulster Defence Association (UDA) was a prominent loyalist paramilitary and vigilante organization created in 1971 to fight for this cause.

In opposition to unionists are Irish nationalists, who are primarily Catholic and who advocate for the union of Northern Ireland with the Republic of Ireland. Extremist nationalists are also called Irish republicans; like Ulster loyalists, they have historically been distinguished by their militancy and their willingness to use violence in support of their cause, although the republican movement eventually split between radicals and moderates who prefer peaceful means. The Provisional Irish Republican Army (Provisional IRA)—also known simply as the Irish Republican Army (IRA), but in many ways distinct from earlier groups of the same name—emerged as a key paramilitary organization in the 1970s and committed acts of violence and terrorism to advance the cause of republicanism until a ceasefire agreement in 1997 and disarmament in 2005.

The long history of sectarian tensions has created a complex patchwork of national identity among the Northern Irish population. The 2021 census found that 42.8 percent identified as British only (a decrease from 48.4 percent in 2011), while 33.3percent identified as Irish only (an increase from 28.4 percent in 2011). Another 31.5 percent identified as Northern Irish only (down just slightly from 29.4 percent in 2011). Meanwhile, 8 percent identified as British and Northern Irish; 1.8 percent as Irish and Northern Irish; 1.5 percent as British, Irish, and Northern Irish; 0.6 percent as British and Irish; 1.5 percent as English, Scottish, or Welsh; and 6 percent as other categories.

Indigenous People: Humans have settled in what is now Northern Ireland since the third millennium BCE. The first Neolithic people farmed the land with flint tools; later, during the Bronze Age (ca. 1700 BCE), the area was mined for metals such as copper and tin, which were used to make more sophisticated implements. During the last millennium BCE, Celtic tribes invaded the island of Ireland, bringing with them the Celtic culture that would become firmly established by the fifth century CE, when Christian culture began to be established there. The dominant ethnolinguistic group became known as the Gaels, who also flourished in Scotland. Gaelic people on the island of Ireland formed the basis of Irish culture, which also saw influence from Vikings and Anglo-Normans over the centuries.

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, England increasingly established control of the island. Colonial activity brought the Irish and English cultures into close contact with each other, resulting in significant social and political changes. The introduction of the potato into Irish agriculture in the eighteenth century also had a profound effect on society. Over-reliance on potato farming, exacerbated by exploitation of Irish farmers by British landlords, contributed to the devastating Great Irish Famine that began in 1845 after blight caused widespread crop loss. Many Irish people died during the famine and many more emigrated abroad, causing a massive population decline and collective trauma that has continued to influence Irish society and culture.

The famine also worsened conflict between the Irish and the British, which also involved tensions between Catholics and Protestants. Religious division was especially prominent in what would become Northern Ireland, which had seen greater settlement by Protestants with strong ties to England and Scotland. Indeed, the Ulster Scots people had developed as a distinct ethnic group on the island, mainly in the north, since the seventeenth century. While many people of Irish ethnicity, particularly Catholics, increasingly supported Irish independence in the early twentieth century, most Protestants tended to prefer staying with the UK. This ethnoreligious sectarian tension influenced the establishment of Irish Home Rule and creation of Northern Ireland in 1920, and would continue to underpin the subsequent sociopolitical turmoil in Northern Ireland into the twenty-first century.

Education: Between the ages of five and sixteen, children in Northern Ireland attend primary and secondary schools. Education is compulsory, with most Catholic students attending Catholic schools and Protestant students attending state-run schools. These include grammar schools, secondary schools, and technical schools. Children must pass examinations to determine their placement.

Northern Ireland's major universities are Queen's University Belfast and the University of Ulster, which has four campuses and was created in 1984 by the merger of the New University of Ulster and Ulster Polytechnic.

Health Care: Northern Ireland is served by the Health and Social Care in Northern Ireland (HSC), which is distinct from the National Health Service (NHS) that serves the countries of Great Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales). Both services provide state-subsidized health care to residents, but the HSC differs in that it provides social care as well. Queen's University Belfast is one of the largest institutions in the province committed to health care and research.

Food: Cuisine in Northern Ireland is similar to that in the Republic of Ireland and the UK. One dish that is popular is the "Ulster fry," which is made from bacon, sausage, eggs, and bread. Native foods include "dulse," or seaweed, and "champ," a mixture of potatoes, milk, and onions. One of the most popular drinks in the province is Old Bushmills Irish whiskey, distilled in County Antrim.

Northern Ireland is known for its fresh seafood, especially salmon. Beef and lamb are also popular foods. Many different types of bread are made there, including soda bread, scones, and potato bread.

Arts & Entertainment: The Arts Council of Northern Ireland is the lead development agency for the arts; it supports artists and art organizations with funding from the Treasury and the National Lottery. The Arts Council maintains a collection of art, including works by Colin Middleton, Henry Moore, John Luke, and William Scott. The organization has also worked to increase the presence of public art and sculpture, and works by artists such as Oisin Kelly and Caroline Mulholland are on display in different parts of the country.

The Grand Opera House in Belfast provides a venue for the performing arts. Belfast also maintains a symphony orchestra. Popular musicians originally from Northern Ireland include James Galway and Van Morrison. Noted actors include Liam Neeson, Kenneth Branagh, and Stephen Rea. Famous writers from Northern Ireland include C. S. Lewis, the Brontë family, poets Seamus Heaney and Paul Muldoon, playwright Brian Friel, and novelist Brian Moore.

Popular sports in Northern Ireland include football (soccer) and Rugby Union football, as well as traditional activities such as Gaelic football, hurling, and handball. Outdoor activities such as fishing and hiking are also popular pastimes.

Holidays: Public holidays in Northern Ireland include New Year's Day (January), St. Patrick's Day (March 17), Good Friday and Easter Monday (March or April), Early May Bank Holiday and Spring Bank Holiday (May), Battle of the Boyne (or Orangemen's Day, July 12), Summer Bank Holiday (August), Christmas Day (December 25), and Boxing Day (December 26).

Environment and Geography

Topography: Northern Ireland is bordered by the Republic of Ireland to the west and the south, and by the Irish Sea to the north and east. Its central lowlands are surrounded by hills. Common physical features include mountains, cliffs, grasslands, heaths, moors, and bogs.

Glacial activity during the Ice Age caused the boulder clay soil to form into small hills known as drumlins and ridges called moraines, which dot the landscape.

Notable features include the Antrim Plateau, which is an area of upland 80 kilometers (50 miles) long and from 16 to 26 kilometers (10 to 16 miles) wide. The Sperrins in County Londonderry include Keady Mountain (335 meters/1,100 feet), Donald's Hill (402 meters/1,318 feet), and Benbradagh (468 meters/1,535 feet).

Lough Neagh, located in the central part of Northern Ireland, is the largest lake in Ireland. Five counties (Antrim, Londonderry, Tyrone, Armagh, and Down) border the lake in the Lough Neagh basin.

The province's natural features are often connected with Irish legends. One of the most famous geological formations in Northern Ireland is the Giant's Causeway. Located on the north Antrim coast, these cliffs extend to the island of Skye and are made up of basalt columns, which are rock formations that were most likely formed by cooling lava. According to legend, a giant named Fionn mac Cumhail (pronounced "Finn mac Cool") created the cliffs when he tried to build a road to Scotland.

Natural Resources: Agricultural land is arguably the country's most important natural resource. Valuable mineral resources are scarce, but include iron ore, bauxite, lead, and copper. Limestone, sand, and gravel are also quarried, and granite can be found in the Mourne Mountains.

Peat, which is found throughout Northern Ireland, has traditionally been an important domestic source of fuel. Today the country must import most of its energy resources. The province is connected to electric power grids in the Republic of Ireland and Europe.

Plants & Animals: During the first periods of human settlement, Northern Ireland was thickly forested with both coniferous and deciduous trees, such as oak, alder, arctic willow, hazel, pine, birch, and elm. Today, the land is nearly entirely deforested due to centuries of farming. According to tradition, native plants like hazel, rowan, primrose, and yarrow are endowed with magical properties; whitethorn is also thought to be a lucky plant.

Among the animal species native to Ireland are the Irish stoat and the Irish hare. Most animal species in Northern Ireland are similar to those found in the rest of the UK. Common fish species include pike, perch, trout, and salmon. Livestock such as sheep, cattle, and horses are also common.

Climate: A temperate province, Northern Ireland tends to receive less rainfall than the southern and western areas of Ireland. It has a high atmospheric humidity, little sunshine, and 200 to 225 days of rainfall throughout the year.

Due to the North Atlantic Drift current, winters and summers are both relatively mild. However, the Atlantic Ocean also produces depressions that make the weather highly changeable. Although Northern Ireland tends to be cooler than the southern portion of the island, snowfall is rare.

Economy

Industry: Historically, Northern Ireland's economy depended upon industries such as linen and cotton production. By the nineteenth century, these industries became mechanized and factories began producing textile products. Shipbuilding was also a historically important industry, due to the region's strategic ports and its trade relationship with the British Empire.

Today, the port cities of Belfast and Larne are Northern Ireland's most important industrial centers. Major manufacturing sectors include food processing, electronics, textiles, and aerospace. While manufacturing activity has declined, the service industries have become more important sources of employment.

Agriculture: Over half of the land in Northern Ireland is used for farming and raising livestock. The most successful farms are large and highly mechanized. Major agricultural products include beef, bacon, eggs, milk, oats, seed potatoes, and barley.

The Lough Neagh basin provides the greatest area of arable soil in the province, and the lake is part of a soil drainage system that is valuable to farmers. Because of poorer soil, a more problematic climate, and steep slopes, land at higher elevations (above 180 meters/600 feet) is less conducive to farming. These areas are primarily used for grazing livestock, especially in County Fermanagh and in the west of County Tyrone.

Tourism: As sectarian violence declined in the late 1990s and early twenty-first century, the tourism sector was increasingly seen as an important area for economic growth. According to the Tourism Northern Ireland organization, in 2019 the country saw 5.3 million visitors and a record £1 billion in tourist spending. Although the tourism industry was severely impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic that began in 2020, it showed signs of recovery over the next few years.

Popular attractions include the Giant's Causeway, country house gardens, boating and fishing, and golfing. Both urban areas such as Belfast and rural locations provide scenery and other amenities.

Government

Northern Ireland is officially governed by the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK), and the chief of state is the reigning British monarch. However, Northern Ireland, like Scotland and Wales, has a devolved legislature under the UK, meaning that a wide range of powers—primarily over matters specific to Northern Ireland—are delegated to the Northern Ireland Assembly, which is headed by the first minister and the deputy first minister. Both ministers share equal responsibilities, and the deputy first minister is not subordinate to the first minister. The UK government retains power over foreign affairs, defense, social security, macroeconomic management, and trade.

Northern Ireland's ties to the UK are an integral part of its history, and indeed the driving force behind its very existence as a separate political entity from the rest of Ireland. As England increased its involvement in Ireland from the seventeenth century on, the northern part of the island in particular became closely aligned with British Protestant culture and leadership, in contrast to strong Irish nationalist sentiment throughout most of the rest of the island. In 1905, the Ulster Unionist Council (UUC) was organized to resist Home Rule by Ireland and to maintain the political power of Anglo-Irish leaders and the British government. While the Ulster Unionists attempted to preserve political union with Britain, the Sinn Féin (Ourselves Alone) party rejected the British Parliament and formed their own political leadership, the Dáil Éireann, in 1919.

Northern Ireland was first defined as a political entity of its own in the Government of Ireland Act 1920, under which the UK partitioned the island of Ireland into two self-governing units. The southern part of Ireland quickly broke away from the UK, becoming the Irish Free State and later the Republic of Ireland, and some Irish nationalists fought for the north to be part of this revolution. However, under the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, Northern Irish leaders opted to remain part of the UK. Tensions between unionists and Irish nationalists, exacerbated by Protestant-Catholic religious differences, would continue to dominate politics in Northern Ireland over the decades. Some Irish nationalist organizations such as the IRA demanded the overthrow of British authority in the north, while unionist forces (including paramilitary groups as well as the official police force, the Protestant-dominated Royal Ulster Constabulary or RUC) often cracked down on Catholics in Northern Ireland. This conflict flared into frequent violence during the period known as the Troubles, which began in the late 1960s and lasted until 1998.

Over the years various efforts were made to decommission paramilitary arms and to carry on peaceful negotiations between Protestants and Catholics. However, continued violence prevented significant success until the Belfast, or Good Friday, Agreement was reached in 1998. It attempted to balance power between the separate communities while maintaining British control over law enforcement in Northern Ireland. Disarmament negotiations with the IRA were resumed in 2000. In 2005, the IRA announced that it would become committed to politics and end its armed aggression. An unprecedented agreement followed between unionist and Irish nationalist leaders, who announced they would form a multi-party government in North Ireland.

The years of relative stability that followed were threatened again by the so-called Brexit referendum in 2016, in which British voters narrowly voted to have the UK leave the European Union (EU). The UK officially left the EU in January 2020, but several aspects of the deal—including what to do with the UK–EU land border created between Ireland and Northern Ireland—continued to be debated. The Good Friday Agreement had created a virtually open border on the island, and the prospect of reestablishing border checkpoints was considered extremely inflammatory, considering the historical tensions on the island. In early 2021, the UK and the European Union signed the Northern Ireland Protocol, a special immigration and trading arrangement. However, the terms of the protocol remained under close scrutiny, and despite amendment in 2023 there were some signs of worsening political tensions.

Interesting Facts

• According to tradition, St. Patrick founded his church in Armagh, a place of ancient religious significance for both Catholics and Protestants.
• The earliest map of the island of Ireland was drawn by Ptolemy, a second-century Egyptian astronomer, around the year 150. This remained the best available map of Ireland for thirteen centuries.
• The six-meter-tall scuplture Origin, built in Belfast at a cost of £100,000, won the Spectator's 2017 What's That Thing? Award for worst public art in the UK.

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