Turkmenistan

Region: Central Asia

Official language: Turkmen

Population: 5,744,151 (2024 est.)

Nationality: Turkmenistani(s) (noun), Turkmenistani (adjective)

Land area: 469,930 sq km (181,441 sq miles)

Water area: 18,170 sq km (7,015 sq miles)

Capital: Ashgabat (Ashkhabad)

National anthem: "Garassyz, Bitarap Turkmenistanyn" (Independent, Neutral, Turkmenistan State Anthem), by Collective/Veli Mukhatov

National holiday: Independence Day, October 27 (1991)

Population growth: 0.92% (2024 est.)

Time zone: UTC+5

Flag: The Turkmenistani flag consists of a green field with a red vertical band on the left (hoist) side. The band itself consists of five traditional tribal guls, which are carpet design elements that highlight Turkmenistan’s proud heritage of hand-woven, ethnic carpets. Two olive branches are depicted at the bottom of the red stripe. Directly to the stripe’s right is a white waxing crescent moon with five white stars, each with five points (representing Islam), in the upper corner.

Independence: October 27, 1991 (from the Soviet Union)

Government type: defines itself as a secular democracy and a presidential republic; in actuality displays authoritarian presidential rule with power concentrated within the presidential administration

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal

Legal system: civil law system with Islamic law influences

Turkmenistan is located in Central Asia and bordered by Iran, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan. Its western border is formed by the Caspian Sea. A Soviet republic for much of the twentieth century, it became an independent nation in 1991 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Economic and social progress after independence proved challenging. Similar to other Central Asian republics, Turkmenistan's authoritarian government has been reluctant to institute market reforms and does not tolerate opposition to its rule.

Note: unless otherwise indicated, statistical data in this article is sourced from the CIA World Factbook, as cited in the bibliography.

People and Culture

Population: Turkmenistan has a young, growing population. Life expectancy is 69.4 years for men and 75.5 years for women (2024 estimate). Turkmenistan's HDI value for 2022 is 0.744— which put the country in the High human development category—positioning it at 94 out of 193 countries and territories.

Accurate data about the population of Turkmenistan can be difficult to verify due to the government's history of withholding the results of countrywide censuses. About 54 percent of the population lived in urban areas in 2023. Most large urban centers are located near a major source of water and large tracts of the central desert are uninhabited. Ashgabat, with a population of 902,000 in 2023, is the largest city while other urban centers include Turkmenbat, Dashoguz, and Mary. Much of the rest of the population lives in rural areas and carries on traditional pastoral lifestyles.

The majority of the population is Turkmen, an ethnic group divisible into many tribes. The Yomud, who occupy the west, the Ersary, who occupy the southeast, and the Tekke, who occupy the central portion of the country, are the three largest. Minority groups include Uzbeks, Russians, and Kazakhs. The Russian population decreased dramatically after Turkmenistan's declaration of independence, and again once dual citizenship was abolished in 2003.

Turkmen is the official national language, spoken by about 72 percent of the population. Russian is often spoken as a second language, and English is becoming more widely spoken. Turkmen, like Uzbek and Kazakh, belongs to the Oghuz family of Southern Turkic languages. It was originally written in Arabic script. Cyrillic was then adopted under the forced system of Russification. Within a decade of independence, the native population had adopted a modified Latin alphabet.

In 2020 93 percent of the population identified as Muslim. The majority of the population professes Sunni Islam, but many are not active practitioners and view religion only as an important cultural trait. Small groups also practice Sufism, a mystical form of Islam, and Shia Islam. During the Soviet era, religious practices were officially repressed by the atheistic state; since independence there has been renewed interest in Islam, though not as strongly as in some other Central Asian republics. Approximately 6.4 percent of the population adhered to the Eastern Orthodox faith in 2020.

Indigenous People: A national identity was somewhat new to the people of Turkmenistan, who had never been organized along such lines before 1991. People identified with family and tribe instead, and these principles are still significant in Turkmenistani society. Any conflict, which has been kept to a minimum in the postcommunist period, is intertribal rather than interethnic.

Before the Russians began annexing Turkmenistani territory in the late nineteenth century, the region had been inhabited for centuries by various nomadic tribes and ethnic groups. This way of life came to an end under Russian, then Soviet, rule. During the Soviet era, ethnic Russians were often given preferential treatment in the work force. Moreover, the local economy was made to serve the seat of power in Moscow, an arrangement that did not benefit the local population nor contribute profoundly to the republic's development.

Education: Education in Turkmenistan is free, universal, and compulsory for the first ten years. Primary school is four years long, lower secondary is six, and upper secondary is two. Schooling begins at age six.

Since independence, the educational system has undergone several reforms, particularly in the curriculum, which now stresses Turkmenistani culture and history. Lack of funding, the need to modernize, and a shortage of qualified teachers are some of the challenges the system has faced. An estimated 99.7 percent of the adult population was literate in 2015.

Institutes of higher education are largely centered in Ashgabat. There are also institutes that specialize in teacher training, agriculture, economics, art, medicine, sport, and tourism.

Health Care: Turkmenistan extends free, universal health care to its citizens. Even in urban centers, however, the quality is quite low, and in rural areas the poor conditions are only exacerbated. The system suffers from lack of funds, modern equipment, basic supplies and well trained medical personnel. Thus many sectors of the population are vulnerable to serious health problems brought on by environmental degradation, improper or non-existent medical care, and poor education.

Food: Many of the dishes prepared in Turkmenistan are also found throughout Central Asia. This is especially true for the rice dish called plov, which is generally topped with lamb, vegetables, and dried fruit. Shurpa is a spicy meat and vegetable soup. Manti are meat-stuffed dumplings, and ishkiykli is similar but cooked in fire-heated sand. The flat bread naan generally accompanies meals. At home, the table is a carpet and people sit around it on the floor. Green tea and camel milk are popular beverages.

Arts & Entertainment: Turkmenistan has evolved a rich, distinctive culture based on various folk traditions. The applied arts, including jewelry, embroidered clothing, and carpets, are widespread. Turkmenistani carpets are known the world over for their dense weave and traditional patterns.

The father of Turkmenistani national literature is Fragi Makhtumkulu (1770–1840). His poems and proverbs have become standard expressions in the modern language, and his earthy writings enjoy more popularity than the Koran. A poetry festival is held every May in his honor. Also popular are oral epics, which are still told and sung by bards called bakhshy. These bards often sing with musical accompaniment. Popular instruments include the dutar, a type of lute.

The Turkmen are great lovers of horses, and they take pride in the akhal teke breed for which they are famous. A strong and graceful animal, this breed's preservation has attained the status of an art form in the country. It is celebrated in a festival every April.

Holidays: Secular holidays include National Flag Day (February 19), Constitution Day (May 18), National Commemoration Day (October 6), and Independence Day (October 27).

Eid al-Fitr, ending the holy month of Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha, commemorating Abraham's obedience to God, are the most important Islamic holidays. Turkmenistani also celebrate Nowruz, an Islamic new year's festival with pre-Islamic roots. It is celebrated around March 21 to welcome spring.

Environment and Geography

Topography: The Karakum Desert occupies roughly 80 percent of Turkmenistan, or 350,000 square kilometers (135,136 square miles). Most of it is characterized by shifting sands, though hard clay deposits also occur. Marshy salt flats have formed in some of the depressions. The desert falls within the Turan Depression. The rest of the terrain is steppe and mountain.

The Kopet Mountains rise in the east of Turkmenistan, along the border with Iran. Mount Shahshah is the highest point of the range, which is characterized by foothills, plateaus, and ravines. Stream-fed oases are found in the foothills. Gora Ayribaba, measuring 3,139 meters (10,298 feet), is the country's highest point. It rises in the far east in the Kugitang Range, which is part of the extensive Pamir-Alay chain.

Turkmenistan has scant water resources. Few rivers flow permanently; they originate in other countries and are concentrated in the south and east. The most important is the Amu Darya, the longest river in Central Asia. Other rivers are the Tejen, the Murgap, and the Atrek. The Caspian Sea, a landlocked salt lake, forms the country's western border. Its most prominent characteristic is the Garabogazkol Gulf, in the northwest.

Natural Resources: Turkmenistan has vast natural resources, particularly oil, natural gas, and coal. Their exploitation has been somewhat hindered by a developing industrial sector and transportation difficulties. Significant deposits of sulfur, salt, marble, and gypsum, as well as clay, sand, and gravel, are also present. It has been estimated that nearly all of the country's territory might yield these or other natural resources.

During the Soviet era, little attention was paid to the adverse environmental effects of poor agricultural practices, including heavy and improper use of fertilizers and pesticides. Since independence, there have been few changes in soil and water management. Desertification thus continues at an alarming rate.

As a result of over-saturation of the soil, salinization is common. Over one million hectares (2,471,054 acres) were damaged in this manner. Overgrazing has also led to soil erosion. Without adequate breaks, frequent winds cause further damage.

Finally, Turkmenistan contributes to the ecological disaster of the disappearing Aral Sea by diverting the Amu Darya. This in turn has led to serious health problems among the populace, especially in the northern province of Dashoguz.

Plants & Animals: Only tough shrubs and grasses grow across the vast desert regions and steppe of Turkmenistan, except along river banks, which support dense shrubs and a variety of wildlife. Desert animals include foxes, gazelles, rodents, and reptiles such as the Central Asian cobra, vipers, tortoise, and monitor lizards. The shore of the Caspian Sea is home to migratory birds during the winter months.

The mountains support a greater variety of both plant and animal life. Wild walnut, pistachio, and almond trees as well as juniper grow on the mountain slopes. Many herbaceous plants found in the country are harvested by Turkmenistani for traditional medicines and for dyes. Lynx, wild goats, cheetahs, porcupines, and snow leopards inhabit the forests and foothills. Among the country's endangered species are the Siberian crane and the Egyptian vulture.

Climate: Turkmenistan has a subtropical climate. Winters are dry and cool; summers are dry, hot, and long. The average temperatures in January is 1° Celsius (33.8° Fahrenheit), and 29° Celsius (84.2° Fahrenheit) in July. Desert areas are much hotter. Precipitation falls between January and May, with March receiving the most on average. Amounts are lower in the desert, higher in the Kopet Mountains. Winds are nearly constant.

The country is prone to violent earthquakes, most acutely in the Kopet Mountains. Ashgabat was destroyed by one such earthquake in 1948. Sandstorms from the Karakum Desert are also common.

Economy

The economy of Turkmenistan is still largely state-controlled, and the government has lagged on market reforms. It also guards most statistics about the country's economic performance, and thus does not attract many investors or international loans. In 2023 the country's gross domestic product (GDP) in terms of purchasing power parity was estimated at US$131.576 billion, with per capita GDP at $17,900. Data on population below the poverty line has been difficult to verify.

Industry: The industrial sector accounted for close to half of the country's GDP by the early 2020s. However, except for the oil and gas industries, this sector is underdeveloped, and only since independence have there been efforts to expand the base. Other industries include the production of textiles as well as food processing. Traditional crafts, mainly carpets, are an important cottage industry.

Turkmenistan's oil and gas production, the mainstay of the economy, is vulnerable to international demand, export problems, and strong regional competition. Nonetheless, since the late 1990s, the industry has been steadily growing with an improvement in export routes. Though the plenitude of natural gas enabled the government to supply it free of charge to the populace for decades, that policy was brought to an end in 2018.

Agriculture: While the country has limited arable land, agriculture counts for a small but significant portion of Turkmenistan's GDP. Most farmland has to be heavily irrigated.

The principal crop is cotton, a legacy from the Soviet era, when Turkmenistan was forced to produce it despite the region's scant water supplies. Crop diversification plans have been implemented with good results, though the country still has to import a lot of its food to meet domestic needs. Other crops include wheat, cereals, and fruits such as melons.

Karakul sheep, which are used for wool and meat, are the most important livestock. Horses, camels, cattle, and silkworms are also raised.

Tourism: The tourism industry has developed slowly in Turkmenistan, hindered by a basic infrastructure, the poor reputation of its government abroad, and some travel restrictions on foreign nationals. Ten thousand or fewer tourists visit each year.

Turkmenistan has several interesting archaeological sites, at Merv, Keneurgench, and Nisa. Other attractions include the Turkmen State Museum of Fine Arts and the National Museum of History and Ethnography of Turkmenistan in Ashkhabad, and the country's national parks and reserves. Camel treks in the Karakum Desert are becoming a popular way to see one of the largest sand deserts in the world.

Government

Turkmenistan became a Soviet republic in 1924 and did not win its independence until 1991, with the collapse of the Soviet Union. Since then it has been governed by an authoritarian government whose strict control of the economy and population has brought about few reforms.

Turkmenistan is a secular republic, with power strongly vested in a president as chief of state, head of government, and chief of the armed forces. According to the amended 1992 constitution, the president is directly elected to a seven-year term, with no term limits. The president is also responsible for appointing the judiciary and the Cabinet of Ministers. These selections are not subject to legislative approval.

The legislature consists of a single house, the National Assembly. The 125 members of the National Assembly are directly elected to serve five-year terms.

The judicial branch is similarly dependent on the president. The highest court is the Supreme Court. The High Commercial Court deals with business disputes.

The administrative unit of Turkmenistan is the province, of which there are five. These are further divided into districts. Each region is presided over by a governor, who is appointed by the president.

Although there are multiple political parties, thanks to a 2012 law allowing their existence, those in power all support the president. The Democratic Party of Turkmenistan (DPT) dominates the political realm. True opposition groups must either operate underground within the country or in foreign countries. The National Democratic Movement of Turkmenistan (NDMT), the Republican Party of Turkmenistan, and the Watan (Fatherland) Party are three such political parties in exile.

In 2022, Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov steps down as president in favour of his own son Serdar.

Interesting Facts

• Ashgabat (or Ashkhabad) means "City of Love."
• The Karakum Canal, dug during the Soviet era, measures 1,100 kilometers (684 miles) and diverts water from the Amu Darya into the desert. It is among the largest irrigation canals in the world.
• A popular Turkmen proverb states, "Water is a Turkmen's life, a horse his wings, a carpet his soul."
• Turkmen first appeared in written form in the early twentieth century. Since then four different writing systems have been used: Arabic script (before 1927), the Latin alphabet (1928–40), the Cyrillic alphabet (1940–91), and, since 1991, a version of the Latin alphabet based on Turkish.
• After opera was officially banned in the early 2000s, a production was not held in Turkmenistan until 2019.

Bibliography

Human Development Insights, United Nations Development Programme, 13 Mar. 2024, hdr.undp.org/data-center/country-insights#/ranks. Accessed 28 Jan. 2025.

"Turkmenistan." Freedom House, 2023, freedomhouse.org/country/turkmenistan. Accessed 3 Nov. 2023.

"Turkmenistan." Human Development Report 2020, United Nations Development Programme, hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/Country-Profiles/TKM.pdf. Accessed 3 Nov. 2023.

"Turkmenistan." The World Bank, 2024, data.worldbank.org/country/turkmenistan. Accessed 28 Jan. 2025.

"Turkmenistan." The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 16 Jan. 2025, www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkmenistan/. Accessed 28 Jan. 2025.

"Turkmenistan Country Profile." BBC News, 24 Mar. 2023, www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16094646. Accessed 28 Jan. 2025.