Rock cycle (geology)
The rock cycle is a fundamental geological process through which Earth's three primary types of rocks—sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic—continuously transform into one another over geological time. This cycle is driven by natural forces such as weathering, erosion, and tectonic activity. Weathering breaks down rocks into smaller fragments, while erosion transports these fragments to new locations where they can settle and accumulate, eventually forming sedimentary rocks. Igneous rocks arise when magma from Earth’s interior cools on the surface or underground, solidifying into forms like basalt or granite. Metamorphic rocks are created when existing rocks are subjected to intense heat and pressure, resulting in changes to their structure and composition.
The rock cycle is an ongoing process that can begin at any point, with molten magma resurfacing through volcanic activity, then cooling to form igneous rocks, which may later be weathered and eroded into sediment. Over millions of years, this sediment can become compacted into sedimentary rock, which can further be transformed into metamorphic rock through tectonic movement. The cycle is slow and gradual, often taking millions of years to see significant changes. Scientists can date some rocks by examining embedded fossils, revealing the ancient history encapsulated in these geological formations. Overall, the rock cycle highlights the dynamic nature of Earth’s geology and the interconnectedness of different rock types.
Rock cycle (geology)
The rock cycle is the process by which Earth's three primary types of rocks—sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic—continually break down and transform into one another. Multiple factors have perpetuated the rock cycle from the early years of Earth's existence to the present day, including weathering, which breaks down rocks into smaller pieces; erosion, which carries fragments of weathered rock to new locations; and the shifting of tectonic plates, large slabs of slowly moving rock upon which the surface of the earth rests. Rocks in the rock cycle have been changing for millions of years and will continue to do so for the rest of Earth's future.
Origins and Types of Rocks
To understand the rock cycle, one must first understand the various types of rocks that exist on Earth and how each type forms. A rock is composed of small mineral grains packed tightly together to form a hard, rough surface. The types of mineral grains that compose rocks determine their appearance. The porousness or non-porousness of these grains determines the amount of water different types of rocks can absorb. Porous rocks are able to absorb water, which makes them softer. Nonporous rocks are harder because they cannot absorb water.
Three basic types of rocks exist on Earth. Sedimentary rocks begin forming when flowing bodies of water carry bits of broken rock, called sediment, with them and eventually deposit them into oceans or lakes. There, these bits of rock settle to the bottom and, over millions of years, form layers. By this time, the weight and pressure of the top layers of rock have compressed the bottom layers to such a degree that all the sediment forms a singular solid piece known as sedimentary rock. Chalk, sandstone, and limestone are examples of sedimentary rock.
Igneous rocks form from magma, the molten liquid made from melted rocks, near Earth's hot center. When magma cools either on Earth's surface or underground, it forms solid igneous rocks. For example, obsidian and basalt are types of igneous rock that form when magma cools on Earth's surface. Granite is a type of igneous rock that forms from magma that hardens underground.
Metamorphic rocks result when heat or pressure within the earth alter existing sedimentary or igneous rocks. For example, nearby magma may heat rocks and alter their chemical composition, or pressure from Earth's shifting tectonic plates may crush rocks into new forms. Examples of metamorphic rocks formed from the fragmented or otherwise altered remains of existing rocks include marble and slate. Although the three types of rocks are distinctly different from one another, they are inextricably linked through the natural process of the rock cycle.
The Rock Cycle
The different processes that create the three types of rocks must work together to achieve the changes of the rock cycle. These processes continually transform the various types of rock from one form to another. As its name implies, the rock cycle continues indefinitely.
One can begin tracing the rock cycle at any point in the process. For example, molten rocks in the form of magma travel from Earth's interior to its surface through vents in the crust called volcanoes. Magma that escapes from a volcano is called lava. As lava cools and hardens on Earth's surface, it forms igneous rocks. After igneous rocks have hardened and become fully formed on Earth's surface, weathering initiates the next step in the rock cycle. Weathering is the gradual degradation of a rock due to elemental factors such as wind and rain, which chip away at pieces of a rock over time, and changes in temperature. Rocks contract in cold weather and expand in heat, and these continual alterations cause rocks to eventually crack and crumble into tiny rock particles called sediment.
Next, rain and wind carry sediment to rivers and streams. The rock particles flow with these waters until they are deposited into lakes or oceans, where the formation of sedimentary rock begins to take place. All the bits of broken rock sink to the bottom of the water and create layer upon layer of packed, compressed rock. Here, Earth's constantly shifting tectonic plates play a vital role in the rock cycle.
The generally accepted scientific view is that tectonic plates are massive pieces of solid rock that constantly move and grind against one another. Over millions of years, the slow but constant shifting of these plates crushes sedimentary rocks that have formed on Earth's crust until they either break down or fall deeper into Earth's mantle, where extreme heat changes their shape, size, or chemical makeup. Metamorphic rocks result from these changes.
Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks may be subjected to such intense heat within Earth's interior that they melt into magma, which eventually will return to the surface through a vent in Earth's crust, thereby restarting—or rather continuing—the cycle. It is important to note that because rocks are so hard and because weathering, erosion, and the shifting of tectonic plates occur so gradually, the rock cycle takes place over millions of years.
Scientists are able to determine the age of some rocks when they find the fossils of dinosaurs or other organisms embedded within them. Because scientists know when particular species existed, they can easily determine the age of a rock that contains a fossil. The fact that such rocks may be hundreds of millions of years old is a testament to both the extreme sluggishness and ensured durability of the rock cycle.
Bibliography
Brinkman, Patricia. The Rock Cycle. Benchmark Education Company: New York, 2006, 7–17. Print.
Hurd, Will. Investigating Rocks: The Rock Cycle. Heinemann Library: Chicago, 2009, 4–7. Print.
Morgan, Sally. The Rock Cycle. Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.: New York, 2009, 5–8. Print.
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