Beryllium and beryllium compounds and cancer
Beryllium is an alkaline earth metal recognized as a known human carcinogen since 2002. Found in ore deposits and certain gemstones, beryllium has unique properties such as high melting point, exceptional thermal conductivity, and resistance to oxidation, making it valuable in various industries, including aerospace, electronics, and nuclear applications. However, exposure to beryllium compounds, particularly through inhalation of dust and fumes, significantly increases the risk of pulmonary diseases and lung cancer, especially among workers in high-exposure environments like mining and manufacturing.
The primary nonmalignant condition associated with beryllium exposure is chronic beryllium disease (CBD), which can lead to granulomas in the lungs and is characterized by an aggressive immune response. While acute exposure can cause immediate respiratory issues, chronic exposure over time is linked to a higher risk of lung cancer. Diagnostic tools like the beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test (BeLPT) help in assessing sensitization and monitoring health risks related to beryllium. Historical exposure levels have decreased since the 1950s, but ongoing debates about permissible exposure limits persist, alongside concerns about individual susceptibility based on genetics and overall health.
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Subject Terms
Beryllium and beryllium compounds and cancer
ROC STATUS: Known human carcinogen since 2002
ALSO KNOWN AS: Glucinium. Glucinium is a rarely used term, but it is noteworthy because, although the name describes beryllium’s tempting, sugary flavor, it does not warn of its poisonous nature, and those working with the alkaline earth metal should be cautioned.
RELATED CANCERS: Lung cancer
DEFINITION: Beryllium is an alkaline earth metal found in ore deposits and in some precious stones. It was discovered in 1798 in emeralds and beryl and isolated in 1828. The metal did not see large-scale industrial use until the late 1950s. In the twenty-first century, however, because of its high melting point, great elasticity, exceptional thermal conductivity, high permeability to X-rays, and resistance to oxidation, beryllium finds uses across a wide range of products.
Exposure routes: Inhalation of beryllium compounds that are found in dust and fumes combined with prolonged exposure elevate the risk of pulmonary disease and lung cancer. Beryllium can also enter the body through food and drinking water, but these routes seem less harmful because of its poor absorption. However, contact through abraded skin may result in local irritation, ulceration, or granulomatous growths.
Where found: Humans have found uses for beryllium across a variety of industries due to its properties as a light, high-strength metal combined with great elasticity and high melting point. A brief list includes uses in X-ray diagnostics, as a lightweight structural material required by the aerospace and missile industries, and as an alloying agent found in applications requiring high strength and first-rate electrical conductivity. Additionally, beryllium and its compounds find use in non-sparking tools, telecommunication devices, electrical contacts, nuclear reactors, ceramics, microwave equipment, communication satellites, space vehicles, aircraft, semiconductors, electrical insulators, everyday items such as golf clubs and bicycle frames, and many other applications requiring a hardening agent found in alloys such as beryllium copper.
At risk: Workers experiencing chronic exposure to beryllium compounds are most at risk. This would include beryllium miners (the United States is the world’s largest producer—though China, a major producer, does not share its production statistics), workers involved with beryllium alloys, ceramics, nuclear reactors, phosphorus manufacture, electronic equipment, and missiles, and garment workers exposed to beryllium dust. According to National Minerals Information Center estimates, work facilities in the United States released approximately 150 metric tons of beryllium and beryllium compounds into the environment in 2023, but the risk to the general population remains poorly understood. What is understood is that lung cancer risk rises with exposure time and beryllium dust concentration.
Etiology and symptoms of associated cancers: The nonmalignant disease associated with beryllium and its compounds is called berylliosis or chronic beryllium disease (CBD). When exposed to high levels of beryllium, the immediate response is characterized by inflammation of the nose, larynx, trachea, bronchioles, and lungs. This is the acute form of beryllium disease and requires air levels of the metal on the order of 100 micrograms/cubic meter (mcg/m3) or more. Normally, ambient air levels are thousands of times less. As the exposure becomes more chronic, and typically from contact at much lower levels just exceeding 0.02 mcg/m3 over ten or more years, berylliosis takes the form of a granulomatous disease of the lungs and possibly other organs. Granulomas are nodular inflammatory lesions packed with immune cells (macrophages). Both the acute and chronic forms of berylliosis are usually not fatal.
The beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test (BeLPT) is an effective blood test that measures beryllium sensitization. Although most people with beryllium sensitization will eventually develop berylliosis, further testing must be done to establish the individual’s disease status. This is an important diagnostic tool because chronic berylliosis is not only a serious illness but also a significant pathway to malignancy.
The progression to chronic berylliosis follows a continuing, overzealous, and ultimately destructive immune response that leads to lung scarring and loss of respiratory capacity. This cascade of events is triggered by chemical messengers called cytokines, which repeatedly call in more immune cells than the lungs can process. This overzealous immune response leads to severe lung damage. The terrible number of deaths from the 1918 flu epidemic was a result of just such a cytokine storm and not from the destructive properties of the virus itself.
The progression to lung cancer is not completely understood, and there is some debate over just how lung cancer arises from berylliosis, but most experts accept that chronic berylliosis is a strong marker for potential malignancy.
History: Cancer arising from beryllium or its compounds depends on length and level of exposure. In general, these exposure risks have been significantly reduced since the 1950s, when workers might have been exposed to hundreds of times the levels found in twenty-first century working conditions. In 1991 researchers confirmed the carcinogenicity of beryllium and its compounds, and in 2002 the Department of Health and Human Services officially recognized beryllium as a carcinogen. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) sets permissible peak exposure limits for beryllium at 0.025 mcg/m3; however, independent occupational health organizations are urging the reduction of these limits even further. To confuse the issue, there is even some minor debate on just how well previous data support the connection between cancer risk and beryllium exposure.
What is known is that certain factors may affect the progression of chronic beryllium disease (CBD). These factors include the individual’s work environment, the duration and intensity of exposure, and the particle size and solubility of the beryllium dust. Also the individual’s genetic makeup, lifestyle habits, and general health are contributing issues.
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