Memory enhancement

Type of psychology: Clinical; Cognitive; Counseling; Developmental; Neuropsychological

Memory enhancement may be defined as the improvement of retrieval from long-term memory through the use of either external or internal memory strategies. External strategies place a cue in the physical environment to prompt memory, and include such practical techniques as using a day planner, placing ones briefcase by the door, or setting a timer. In contrast, internal memory strategies are systematic mental techniques that aid memory by recoding and storing information in a more memorable way. These include mnemonic techniques such as first-letter mnemonics, the keyword method, the face-name mnemonic, the pegword method, and the method of loci.

Introduction

Before introducing specific strategies for enhancing memory, it is important to differentiate two types of memory. In their classic “box model” of information processing, Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) described several components, including short-term and long-term memory. Short–term memory refers to what the individual is currently thinking about. It is temporary in nature, and information is held in this “box” only briefly unless it is rehearsed. Contemporary memory theorists frequently use the term “working memory” as a replacement for the short-term designation. Rehearsal in short-term memory (essentially, one's consciousness) can take two forms: maintenance rehearsal (e.g., mentally saying something over and over to ourselves) or elaborative rehearsal (e.g., connecting new information to prior knowledge, perhaps by using a mnemonic strategy). Both maintenance and elaborative rehearsal can help transfer information from short-term memory into more permanent, long-term memory.

Individuals who complain of losing their train of thought mid-sentence, or of forgetting what they were seeking after walking into a closet, are referring to problems with their “here and now” short-term memory. In contrast, when someone complains that they cannot remember a former classmate's name, or what they did last weekend (or last night, for that matter), they are referring to problems with retrieval from long-term memory.

Retrieval from long-term memory (i.e., remembering) can be enhanced by the use of either external or internal, mental strategies. Again, external strategies place a cue of some sort in the physical environment to prompt memory. On the other hand, internal memory strategies are elaborative, cognitive techniques that facilitate storage and retrieval of information from long-term memory. Exercises of memory enhancement can be used by anyone to sharpen memory, but they can be of particular use for the elderly.

External Memory Aids

In today's world, external memory strategies abound. Beyond time-worn, practical techniques such as making a list or using a pill box with designated days of the week, electronic devices such as computers or smart phones can serve to cue us to do things at certain times—and perhaps obviate the need for memorizing some information because the answer is literally at our fingertips by way of an internet search engine, such as Google. Today, GPS (Global Positioning System) devices direct us to locations so that we may not need to remember directions (or use a paper copy of a map). Yet, at times, we still need to remember things without relying on physical cuing systems. In this regard, internal memory strategies can be used to enhance memory.

Internal Memory Strategies

One way to move information from short-term memory (our consciousness) to long-term memory is to use simple rote rehearsal. For example, mentally saying something over and over to oneself can be a useful memory strategy. Further, retrieval practice, such as testing oneself with flash cards, has been found to improve memory.

Another way to store information effectively in long-term memory is to do something extra with the information, such as applying a mnemonic strategy. Mnemonics are systematic mental techniques that recode and store information in a way that aids retrieval. Worthen and Hunt (2011) list four basic processes that underlie effective mnemonic strategies: elaboration, organization, distinctiveness, and mental imagery. Thus, mnemonic techniques may help make information more memorable by: (a) elaborating upon it, (b) systematically organizing the to-be-remembered information, (c) making the information more distinctive, and (d) using mental imagery to connect otherwise unrelated information. Several of the more well-known mnemonic strategies are now described.

Letter-Based Mnemonics

Acronyms, and other letter-based mnemonics, are probably the most widely used type of mnemonic strategy. For example, a student of first aid may learn the acronym “RICE” to help cue the four steps in treating a fracture: rest, immobilize, cold, and elevate. Or, a student in a science class may learn “ROY G. BIV” in order to remember the colors of the spectrum in order: red, orange, yellow, blue, indigo and violet. And, the strategy can take the form of a rhyming sentence, such as in learning “On old Olympus' towering tops, a Finn and a German viewed some hops” to cue memory for the 12 cranial nerves in order (e.g., olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, etc.). In the latter two, the letter-based mnemonics cue not only the particular words, but also convey their fixed orders. However, although popular with students, individual letters are sometimes rather weak prompts for the to-be-remembered words. And, as illustrated with the cranial nerves, there is the problem of having multiple names starting with the same letter (e.g., the initial three “o's”).

The Keyword Method

Among mnemonic strategies, the keyword method has received the most attention from researchers—and for good reason. This versatile strategy can be applied whenever one wishes to improve paired-associate verbal learning (e.g., learning a foreign word and its meaning, or a part of the brain and it's function). For example, say that one wanted to remember that the part of the brain called Broca's Area is involved in the production of speech. First, the unfamiliar name “Broca” is recoded as more familiar keyword that resembles it, such as “broken.” Second, the keyword is interacted with “production of speech” by way of an interactive mental image. For example, one might “imagine that a talking doll is broken, so that it cannot talk.” Having interacted with the material in this manner, upon seeing the name “Broca's Area,” retrieval proceeds as follows: “Broca” > “broken” > mental image involving the talking doll > talking (or the production of speech).

Further, using what is termed a “dual-keyword” approach, one can associate two unfamiliar names or terms. For example, to associate states and their capitals, consider Kansas, whose capital is Topeka. Keywords for Kansas and Topeka are then selected, such as can (for Kansas) and top (for Topeka). Then, one can combine the two by way of an interactive mental image, such as “a tin can (Kansas) with a top (Topeka) spinning on top of it.” Further, encoding the information by way of interactive imagery yields good associative symmetry. That is, retrieval works well in either direction. For example, the retrieval path may proceed as follows: Kansas > “can” > mental image of can with top spinning on it > “top” > Topeka. Or, retrieval may proceed as follows: Topeka > “top” > mental image of can with top spinning on it >“can” > Kansas.

The Face-Name Mnemonic

Many of us find remembering people's names (when prompted by their faces) to be difficult. For this task, memory improvement books often recommend the face-name mnemonic (e.g., Higbee, 1993). As with the keyword method, the face-name mnemonic first involves recoding the person's name as a keyword (or name clue). Second, the strategy requires the identification of a prominent feature of the person. Finally, the name clue is connected with the prominent feature by way of an interactive mental image. For example, consider the actress Julianne Moore who is known for her striking red hair. First, her name “Julianne” can be recoded as a keyword or name clue, such as “jewels.” Then, “jewels” are tied to her prominent red hair by way of an interactive mental image. For example, one might “imagine her beautiful red hair covered with sparkling jewels (Julianne).” Then, upon seeing her, remembering proceeds as follows: beautiful red hair > mental image of her red hair covered with sparkling jewels > jewels > Julianne. One can use the technique to remember first or last names, as desired.

The Pegword Method

Like the first-letter mnemonics described earlier, the pegword method is a mnemonic strategy that enhances memory for an ordered list of items. It involves first learning an easily-memorized list of concrete pegwords that rhyme with numbers, and is often presented as follows: one is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door, five is a hive, and so forth. Once the list of number-cued pegwords is memorized, the next step is to interact each to-be-remembered item with its corresponding pegword. For example, consider a back-to-school shopping list that includes pencils, paper, crayons, scissors, and glue. One then forms a mental image of each item interacting with a pegword. For example, you might imagine (a) a hamburger bun skewered with sharpened pencils, (b) a shoe stuffed with paper, (c) a tree with lots of colorful crayons hanging from its branches, (d) prying open a door with a pair of scissors, and (e) pouring glue down a bee hive. Once the items have been encoded in this fashion, one simply goes down the list of numbers to cue each of the desired items. For example, one > bun > image of bun skewered with pencils > pencils; then two >shoe > image of shoe stuffed with paper > paper, and so forth. Although the order of this particular list may not be important, there are situations where remembering things in order is important – and this strategy preserves that order.

The Method of Loci

The method of loci is a technique that traces its origin to ancient Greece (“loci” means “places” in Latin). Like first-letter mnemonics and the pegword method, the method of loci is designed to store and enhance retrieval of a list of items in a fixed order. First, a well-known set of locations are identified such as one might consecutively pass on a walk in some location (e.g., a park, through one's home, etc.). For example, perhaps a walk through a local park passes a gate, a bench, a bird bath, and so forth. Second, the to-be-remembered items are “placed” in these locations – optimally by way of interactive mental images. Using the same back-to-school list as above, we might imagine: the gate closing on and breaking a pencil, the bench covered with paper, a bird bath filled with loose, colorful crayons, and so forth. Having stored the items in these locations, we then retrieve them by taking a mental walk down that familiar path or route. Each location serves to prompt the interactive mental image, and the image cues the desired item.

Bibliography

Henner, M., & Henner, L. (2012). Total Memory Makeover: Uncover Your Past, Take Charge Of Your Future. New York: Gallery Books. Print.

Higbee, K. L. (1993). Your Memory: How It Works and How to Improve It (3rd ed.). New York: Prentice-Hall. Print.

Levin, J. R. ( 2015). Mnemonic Strategies and Techniques: Components of Mnemonic Techniques, Varieties and Uses of Mnemonic Techniques, Educational Applications of Mnemonic Techniques.

Lorayne, H., & Lucas, J. (1974). The Memory Book. New York: Ballantine. Print.

McPherson, F. (2000). The Memory Key: Unlock the Secrets to Remembering. New York: Barnes and Noble. Print.

Worthen, J. B., & Hunt, R. R. (2011) Mnemonology: Mnemonics for the 21st Century. New York: Psychology Press. Print.