Narcissism (psychology)
Narcissism in psychology encompasses a range of traits characterized by self-love, selfishness, and manipulative behaviors. At the extreme end lies narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), a maladaptive behavioral pattern marked primarily by grandiosity—where individuals overestimate their importance and achievements. Those with NPD typically feel entitled to special privileges and lack empathy, often reacting poorly to criticism and desiring constant admiration. Narcissism has historical roots, with references dating back to the myth of Narcissus, and has been a focus of psychological study since the 1970s, leading to its inclusion in the DSM in 1980. Research suggests that both genetic factors and environmental influences, such as unrealistic praise during childhood, may contribute to the development of narcissistic traits. The disorder appears to be more prevalent in males, and while many children exhibit narcissistic tendencies, most do not develop NPD. Treatment options, primarily involving psychotherapy, can be challenging as many narcissists do not recognize their need for change. Understanding narcissism can provide insight into interpersonal relationships and the complexities of self-perception.
Narcissism (psychology)
Narcissism refers to a series of characteristics including self-love, selfishness, and manipulative behavior. From a psychological standpoint, the more extreme condition of narcissistic personality disorder is regarded as a maladaptive pattern of behavior. According to the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), the primary characteristic of the personality disorder is grandiosity. This refers to individuals' tendency to overestimate and exaggerate their importance and achievements.
Narcissists believe they are entitled to special privileges and are greater than others; they also do not experience empathy for others. Narcissists may envy someone who has what they feel they deserve, and may belittle others of perceived lower social rank. They desire to hold others' interest above anyone or anything else and to be the focus of all attention. Some researchers have described narcissists as individuals who are addicted to admiration.
Narcissistic Behavior
Narcissism has been recognized in human behavior for centuries. The state takes its name from the ancient myth of Narcissus, a youth who was so attractive he fell in love with his own reflection. Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) considered narcissism a neurosis that was primarily a female problem. A central theme of his theories was the idea that humans covet what they do not have, and Freud believed women were trying to compensate for not having male genitalia by being overly concerned with their appearances. Later researchers focused on studying the condition more subjectively, and it became a topic of tremendous focus during the 1970s. Narcissistic personality disorder was added to the DSM in 1980. During the first decades of the twenty-first century, estimates of its prevalence in the population ranged from 5 to 6 percent, with males making up 50 to 75 percent of those diagnosed.
Early researchers believed that the narcissists' apparently high self-esteem was a screen behind which lurked deep-seated insecurity. This conclusion may be due to the narcissistic personality's tendency to react negatively to criticism: Rather than revealing low self-esteem, such outbursts may instead indicate anger at anyone who does not recognize the individual's value. Many studies indicate that narcissists truly do regard themselves as supremely important and superior to others, and feel they are beyond reproach or criticism.
Symptoms of narcissistic personality disorder include the following:
- Reacting poorly to criticism (with anger, humiliation, or shame)
- Taking advantage of other people to achieve the narcissist's goals
- Exaggerating one's achievements, importance, and skills
- Holding improbable fantasies about attractiveness, intelligence, power, success, or romance
- Holding unreasonable anticipation of favoritism
- Needing unceasing attention and favor from others
- Lacking interest in others' feelings (empathy)
- Becoming easily jealous
- Obsessively interested in oneself
- Focusing mostly on one's own goals, at the expense of others
Narcissists may exhibit all or some of these symptoms, to varying degrees. In 1984 Robert A. Emmons (1958–), in the Journal of Personality Assessment, defined four facets of narcissism: leadership/authority; self-absorption/self-admiration; superiority/arrogance; and exploitativeness/entitlement. These indicate the overall trend of symptoms exhibited by narcissistic individuals.
Narcissists frequently appear attractive and charming, at least on first impression. These qualities can benefit them in professional fields such as advertising and sales. Long-term relationships are usually a difficult prospect, however, because the self-focus of a narcissist leaves little room for concern about others.
Narcissists who feel they are not fully appreciated may feel unfulfilled and disappointed in life and relationships. They may also be disappointed if they are unable to acquire the best of everything because they feel they deserve it. Their need for admiration can result in a vicious cycle of personal relationships; narcissists are admired when they make an initial good impression, but as others become less enamored of them, they seek out new acquaintances to satisfy the craving for admiration.
Causes of Narcissism
More males than females are affected by narcissistic personality disorder, and may be more prone to narcissism in general. Although children and adolescents are often narcissistic, most grow out of the behavior and do not develop narcissistic personality disorder. Those who do manifest the more extreme version usually begin to develop the disorder as teens or young adults.
Causes of narcissism are difficult to determine. Research has found that about 50 percent of the cause may be related to genetics. Other studies have focused on environments and interactions with others. For example, some narcissists may develop excessively high self-esteem because they are attractive and receive praise for their appearances. Some individuals may be influenced by popular culture, which often focuses on narcissists and narcissistic behavior. In many cases, individuals who are praised or admired do not receive balanced, realistic feedback. This lack of feedback might be related to the sometimes fleeting nature of narcissists' relationships, which may not endure long enough for realistic feedback to occur. Some researchers have suggested it could emerge from unrealistic parenting, in which the child is praised unrelentingly and transgressions are not corrected. This theory is widely controversial, and some studies have disproved parenting as a significant factor in narcissistic personality disorder development.
Treatment
Treatment of narcissistic personality disorder may be extremely difficult. Most narcissists do not see any reason to be in treatment because they feel they do not need to change. Some therapists have found that narcissists who do seek treatment are not seeking assistance because they want treatment; instead they are doing so because others—generally family members—have insisted on it. Some narcissists do pursue therapy because the individuals' expectations have not been met and they are experiencing depression. Narcissists may have problems in school and at work, may abuse alcohol or drugs, and may be at risk for suicide.
Treatment for narcissistic personality disorder generally involves psychotherapy, also known as talk therapy.
Narcissists may learn to value others to a greater degree when they are exposed to people in social settings. Some individuals may also learn to interact with others more effectively through therapy.
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