Albanian-Turkish Wars
The Albanian-Turkish Wars refer to a series of conflicts during the 15th century between the Ottoman Empire and Albanian forces, primarily led by the notable national hero Scanderbeg (George Kastrioti). Following the Ottoman conquest of much of the Balkans and parts of Anatolia, Albania's mountainous terrain initially provided a refuge from Ottoman advances. However, as the Ottomans began to assert control over the region, Albanian resistance emerged, spurred by leaders such as Scanderbeg, who initially served the Ottomans before leading a rebellion against them in 1443.
Scanderbeg, renowned for his military prowess, managed to thwart several Ottoman invasions over the next two decades, effectively uniting various local factions, regardless of their religious affiliations. Although he received assistance from external powers, including Venice and the Papacy, his primary goal was to protect Albanian lands. The wars saw significant battles, including Scanderbeg's victory at Albunlena in 1467 against Mehmed II. However, after Scanderbeg's death in 1468, the Ottomans intensified their efforts, eventually capturing key Albanian cities like Scutari by 1478. This established Ottoman rule in Albania, which lasted until 1913, leading to a significant religious transformation as many Albanians converted to Islam. The Albanian-Turkish Wars mark a pivotal chapter in the region's history, highlighting themes of resistance, identity, and the complex interplay of local and imperial powers.
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Albanian-Turkish Wars
At issue: Ottoman Empire control of Albania
Date: 1443–1478
Location: Albania
Combatants: Ottomans vs. Albanian aristocracy
Principal commanders:Turkish, Mehmed II (1432–1481); Albanian, George Kastrioti, also known as Scanderbeg, governor of Albania (1404–1468)
Principal battles: Albunlena, Scutari
Result: Ottoman victory; Albania became part of the Ottoman Empire
Background
By the middle of the fifteenth century, the Ottoman Turks had conquered all of Anatolia and most of the Balkans. The Byzantine Empire was reduced to Constantinople. However, the city-state of Venice still challenged the Turks in some areas, and the Holy League launched unsuccessful crusades against them. Areas that were able to hold out for an extended period were the western mountains in Albania and Montenegro.
Action
In the early fifteenth century, the Ottomans rarely invaded Albanian territory because its remote mountain highlands were less valuable than other parts of the Balkans they were seeking. Throughout the Balkans, local lords and princes made alliances according to political necessity disregarding religion (Roman Catholic, Orthodox, or Muslim). Sultan Murad II forced the Christian Albanian lord John Kastrioti, ruler of the northern Albanian province and an ally of Venice, to accept him as his overlord. Beginning in the 1430’s, after the Ottoman Turks conquered Thessalonica, they began collecting tribute from the Albanians and giving confiscated Christian land to Muslim spahi (knights). In southern Albania, resistance to these taxes and confiscations erupted throughout the decade, and beginning in the 1440’s, the Turks vied with the Venetian empire, the kingdom of Naples, and the papacy for the Albanian ports of Scutari, Durazzo, and Bar. The Turks planned to invade Naples using the ports as a base.
The hero of the Albanian resistance was Kastrioti’s son, George Kastrioti, an Albanian who was forcibly converted to Islam as a hostage of the Sultan. As a young man, he remained a loyal warrior of Murad, who rewarded him by making him governor of his native land. He adopted the name Alexander (Alexander, bey of Albania) and has passed into history as Scanderbeg, the national hero of both Albanian Muslims and Christians.
In 1443, however, Scanderbeg assumed the leadership of the Albanian resistance and began a war against his former lord. The Holy League fought the Crusade of Varna, and Scanderbeg used the Ottoman concern with that front to clear the Albanian land of Turkish knights. In the next twenty-three years, he turned back four Ottoman armies in 1448, 1450, 1466, and 1467. In 1451, the renowned Mehmed II succeeded his father and turned his attention to capturing Constantinople. After Constantinople’s fall in 1453, Mehmed turned to Scanderbeg. However, his two attempts to defeat the renegade failed. The Christians hailed Scanderbeg as a defender of the faith, but he really was interested chiefly in protecting his lands in the north. He accepted support from Naples and Venice. Pope Calixtus III designated him captain-general of the Holy See. Scanderbeg defeated the Turkish forces led by Mehmed II at Albunlena (1467). Mehmed, still battling on several fronts, sent another, larger army the next year under Isa Beg, but the Albanians held it off. Although Scanderbeg’s attacks were annoying and the Turkish army dealt brutally with the Albanian areas they conquered, the greater foe was Venice. After Scanderbeg’s death, Mehmed again led his army against the Venetians at Scutari (1478). The city held out, but Mehmed cut off its lifelines, forcing the Venetians to negotiate peace; they handed the port to the Turks.
Aftermath
The Ottoman Empire ruled Albania until 1913. Most Albanians converted to Islam.
Bibliography
Drizari, Nelo, Scanderbeg: His Life, Correspondence, Orations, Victories, and Philosophy. Palo Alto, Calif.: National Press, 1968.
Hutchings, Raymond. Historical Dictionary of Albania. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1996.
Jacques, Edwin E. The Albanians: An Ethnic History from Prehistoric Times to the Present. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1995.