Almohad Caliphate

The Almohad Caliphate was a large, powerful Muslim empire in North Africa that was founded in the twelfth century by a group of indigenous people, known collectively as Berbers in English. This medieval Berber empire gained control of large portions of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. They were known for their fundamentalist approach to the Islamic religion, culture, and law. They are named because “almohad” refers to the Arabic rendering of a people who are united in their worship of Allah, and “caliphate” refers to rule by a caliph, or Muslim religious ruler.

In the eleventh century, the Arabs introduced the religion of Islam to the Berber people, who were indigenous to North Africa. Islamic religious ideology took hold as several powerful Berber dynasties emerged over the following century, with one of the largest and most powerful being the Almohads. They mainly descended from a nomadic tribe of Berber people originally from villages in the High Atlas Mountains of Morocco who followed the Almohad ideology. The Almohad empire conquered North Africa as far as modern-day Libya and the Iberian Peninsula in areas of modern-day Spain and Portugal. The caliphate ruling dynasty followed with successive dynasties continuing to rule throughout the Christian Crusades of the Middle Ages for several hundred years. However, even with the fall of the empire in the thirteenth century, their influence in areas such as Moorish art and architecture remains.

Background

The Berber or Amazigh people were the indigenous people living in North Africa before the arrival of Arabs. Groups of Berbers lived and still live in various communities across present-day Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger. The languages of the Berbers are called Amazigh languages. The Berbers and their languages are related to those of the ancient Egyptians.

Many groups of Berber people lived during the first millennium BCE, such as the Mauri, Masaesyli, Massyli, Musulami, Gaetuli, and Garamantes. All eventually had their own kingdoms. Some early Berber kingdoms became part of the Roman Empire during the end of the second century BCE, while others continued independently or rose during the first century CE. Other remaining Berber kingdoms were conquered during the seventh and eighth centuries CE by the Arabs, and the people within them were assimilated into the Arabic culture.

The Arabs used groups of Berber warriors from the villages in the Atlas Mountains to invade and conquer Spain during the time of the Roman Empire. The Spanish and Romans living in the Iberian Peninsula called these indigenous invaders “barbar” from the word “barbarian,” or someone who did not speak Greek or Latin. The Arabs during the Middle Ages continued to use this term to refer to the various North African indigenous tribes, which in English became “Berber.” However, the people themselves used “Amazigh” to designate their heritage. The Christian Europeans, however, used the name “Moor” to refer to Muslim people in the Maghreb region of the Iberian Peninsula and the islands of Sicily and Malta during the Middle Ages and the time of the Crusades. While “Moor” initially only applied to the Berber people, the term later included Arabs and other Muslim Iberians who came to live in this area and fought the Christians in the Holy Wars of the crusades from the eleventh to the thirteenth century.

Ibn Tumart was from a Berber Masmuda tribe and is credited with founding the Almohad Muslim religious movement around 1120, when he established a Berber state in a small mountain village called Tin Mal in the southern Moroccan Atlas Mountains. Tumart was a student of Islam and developed his own doctrine based on strict unitarists under various Muslim masters and mentors during his education in Spain and Baghdad. His devoted followers became known as “Almohads,” which means “those who affirm the unity of God” in Arabic.

The ruling Berber dynasty at that time was the Almoravids, and Tumart found fault in their worship and interpretation of Islam. Some of Tumart’s early disciples became important leaders in the caliphate. In 1121, after his proclamation of divine backing, he and his followers actively began opposing the Almoravids and sought control through small skirmishes in the Atlas Mountains around their stronghold in Tin Mal. These battles went on for many years and by 1130, the Almohads came down from the mountains and began attacking the city of Marrakesh but were unsuccessful. Tumart died soon after the defeat, and in his place, one of his first disciples and his successor, Abd al-Mu’min al-Gumi, took over as leader. Once established in power, he amassed a powerful army to take control of the Almoravid’s area and become caliph.

Consequently, the Almohad caliphate ruling dynasty was officially founded in 1147 by Abd al-Mu’mi when he declared himself the caliph over Morocco. After defeating the Almoravids, he extended his domain over all northwestern Africa by 1159. Next, he concentrated on the Al-Andalus (Andalusian) area of the Iberian Peninsula, which is in modern-day Portugal and Spain. This was conquered and came under Almohad caliphate rule by 1172. As the dynasty continued, successive caliphs came to power and continued to rule the Almohads, fighting against the Christians in wars of the Crusades.

In 1212, Muhammed an-Nasir, the fourth Almohad caliph, was defeated at the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in Sierra Morena, which was the beginning of the end of the Almohad Caliphate empire. An-Nasir was defeated by medieval Christian forces from Castile, Aragon, and Navarre. In the following decades, the Iberian cities of Cordoba and Sevilla were also subsequently conquered by the Christian forces in 1236 and 1248. Although the Almohad Caliphate continued to exert its rule in North Africa, parts of their territory continued to be lost as the years went on. Individual tribes revolted, and the Marinid Berber empire in northern Morocco began to gain hold around 1215. The final Almohad Caliph, Idris al-Wathiq, had only control of Marrakesh, and came to his end when he was murdered by an enslaved person in 1269. Following this, the Marinids took over the imperial city of Marrakesh, the final outpost of the Almohads.

Overview

After taking control of the empire, the Almohad Caliphate instituted various cultural reforms and sought to suppress the influence of other forms of Islamic theology and jurisprudence. The theological doctrines of Tumart were promoted, and other religious doctrinal writings burned, as demonstration of rejection of the mainstream and permissive Islamic doctrine held by the Almoravids. Royal courts both in Marrakesh and Seville became centers of Almohad Islamic instruction. Although the strict fundamentalist movement to return Islam to traditionalism did not survive long beyond Tumart, the movements of the Sufis and philosophical schools represented by Ibn Tufayl and Ibn Rushd grew and became successful under the Almohad Caliphate.

Following the doctrine of their founder, the Almohads reformed the existing Almoravid society and under stricter measures meant to reduce laxness and ensure close observance of literal interpretation of Islamic law. Their interpretation of the Qur’an, the sacred Islamic religious text, did not approve of tolerance of other religious beliefs. Prior to the Almohad empire, non-Muslims were allowed to practice their own religious beliefs openly if they submitted to Muslim rule and paid taxes. Jews and Christians were tolerated in the Almoravid empire.

However, after Almohad had taken control, many of these non-Muslims moved from the territory for fear of persecution after the repeal of their protective status under the law. In fact, Abd al-Mu’min decreed that non-Muslims must convert to Islam or face forcible removal or death. Even then, those who chose conversion faced discrimination. In addition, some Muslims left the empire to practice their faith in a more tolerant political climate. However, toward the end of the empire, tolerance of non-Muslims increased. Christians were eventually not only accepted but also encouraged to settle in North Africa. After the decisive battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, alliances were even entered into with Christian rulers of Castile.

Nevertheless, despite religious conservatism, art and culture continued to flourish in the empire. Calligraphy used in manuscripts and decoration was a popular form of art. Gold leaf and precious stones were used to emphasize important words in manuscripts, and writing was interwoven with artwork and patterned medallions. Bookbinding became an important trade during the Almohad caliphate. Abd Al Mu’min brought in skilled artisan binders to create a special edition of the Qur’an. While many materials were used in making books, such as parchment and animal skin, technological advancements increased the production of paper at papermills used in making Qur’an manuscripts, religious doctrine books, and other official documents.

Similarly, use of advanced techniques in textiles, metalwork, ceramics, tile, and other painted decoration was usually limited to religious or official empire use, such as in the decoration of royal palaces. Design and ornamentation were arranged in a regular geometric pattern that is still seen today in Moroccan design. The imperial city of Rabat became an important cultural center during the reign of the Almohads as well. It was known for its multi-colored pottery in tones of yellow, green, and bright blue on a buff-colored background.

During this period, Moroccan and Moorish architecture began to take shape. Almohad architects were instrumental in the development of the style. Using materials made of compressed earth and bricks, architects developed a widescale industry of building design and motifs. As the empire progressed, the style of architecture became more ornate. Begun in 1143, the Great Mosque of Taza is the oldest surviving Almohad mosque and continues to be an example of classic Moroccan architecture influenced by the Almohads.

For the most part, the empire maintained Berber tribal hierarchy in its political and social framework. It had a ruling aristocracy, but in time it became influenced by the Spanish concept of a central government. Although the empire was founded on a belief system with strict ideals that included avoiding unnecessary material extravagance, rulers also began to adopt the custom of building expensive and ornate Andalusian-style monuments, like those of the Almoravids and other dynastic empires. Highly decorative mosques and palaces were designed and built to showcase the wealth and power of the successive caliphs.

The Almohads’ legacy is still visible in the mosques and other architecture built during their reign. This includes the Great Mosque of Taza, the Koutoubia in Marrakesh, the mosque at Tin Mal, and the Menara Gardens in the Atlas Mountains. The main populations of modern-day Berber people of various tribes are still living in Algeria and Morocco, where they have descended from the ancient Berber population. However, not all of them identify as Amazigh-speaking or ethnically Berber or Amazigh. It is estimated that one-quarter of the population of Algeria and three-fifths of the Moroccan population is Berber. The Sahara region, which included southern Algeria, Libya, Malia, and Niger, is estimated to have more than two million Berber descendants.

Bibliography

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