Amenhotep III

Egyptian king (r. 1386-1349 b.c.e.)

• Born: c. 1403 b.c.e.
• Birthplace: Thebes, Egypt
• Died: c. 1349 b.c.e.
• Place of death: Thebes, Egypt

Amenhotep III oversaw a period of progress in classical Egyptian civilization. He maintained the longest reign of any ruler of this period, erected temples throughout Egypt and northern Sudan, and ushered in an era of peace and prosperity.

Early Life

Little is known about the early life of Amenhotep III (ah-mehn-HOH-tehp), who historically came to be distinguished as Amenhotep the Magnificent. He was born at Thebes after the era of Egypt’s military campaigns in west Asia under the reigns of the preceding kings Thutmose III and Amenhotep II. He was the son of Thutmose IV and Mutemwia, who was a secondary wife of Thutmose IV, not his principal queen. Thutmose IV died when the young Amenhotep III was probably sixteen years of age, which places his birth at around 1403 b.c.e.

Amenhotep III’s birth was depicted as a divinely inspired event, with the god Amen-Ra visiting Mutemwia in her palace, disguised as her husband. After Amen-Ra’s real identity was disclosed, Mutemwia conceived Amenhotep III, the heir to the throne. Amenhotep III’s infancy was memorialized well, depicted in scenes on the formidable temple he constructed at Luxor, with scenes of his mother, who, as the queen-mother, was referred to as “great royal wife” according to Egyptian customs of antiquity. Mutemwia enjoyed royalty status similar to that of her son, as the status that women enjoyed was akin to that of men in ancient Egypt. Mutemwia functioned as a vice regent during the early part of Amenhotep III’s reign, exerting great influence in the direction of his rule.

Early portraits of Amenhotep III’s youth reflect a brilliant and handsome figure who loved hunting lions and slew 102 when he was between sixteen and twenty-six years old. A scarab described the celebration of a two-day hunt in which he felled eighty-six bulls with his own arrows.

Life’s Work

In the first two years of his reign, Amenhotep III opened the Tura limestone quarry south of Cairo as well as the Deir-el-Bersha quarry, in anticipation of the sprawling building construction and expansion he intended.

In the tenth year of his reign, he married his beloved queen, Tiy, daughter of Yuya and Tuyu, two common folk, a possible arrangement by his mother, as Tiy was one of his mother’s attendants. Although there is much speculation about the national and ethnic origins of Tiy, she was clearly from outside the royal circles of Amenhotep III. She was most likely from the southern region of Egypt, probably Nubia, as the Eighteenth Dynasty reflected a strong Nubian character and, in contrast to the Middle Kingdom, for example, included southerners in the administration of the province, making the lines of distinction between resident Egyptians and dominant Nubians progressively obscured. Depictions of Tiy in sphinxes and in the Sedeinga temple in Nubia point heavily in the direction of black roots. In the same year, Amenhotep III married Kirgipa, daughter of Satirna, a king of neighboring Naharin.

Amenhotep III’s primary inclination in marriage was to his first wife, Tiy, and he constructed a lake in her honor and for her pleasure, the remains of which are called Birket Habu, visible south of Medinet Habu, adjacent to his palace. The lake was opened on the event of Amenhotep III’s first coronation anniversary. Tiy featured centrally in the reign of Amenhotep III, being described as the king’s divine and his earthly partner, in the vein of the goddess Hathor, who was mother, daughter, and wife of the god Ra. Tiy is found in most statuary depictions of Amenhotep III and stellae, seated next to him. Her name is attached to his on numerous small objects and jewelry, and her name follows his in large scarab representations of celebratory events. Cows’ horns and sun disks, associated with Hathor, were added to Tiy’s headdress and to her representation as a sphinx, evincing the mutualistic ruler role that she played with her husband.

Amenhotep III built a temple in honor of Tiy at Sedeinga in Nubia, where Tiy was worshiped as a female divinity, to accompany Amenhotep III’s own temple at Soleb, to the south. The dynamic role of vice regent attributed to Tiy provided the basis for the emergence of the prominent queen Nefertiti during the reign of the successor to Amenhotep III, Amenhotep IV, who subsequently changed his name to Akhenaton. Though Amenhotep III had erected other temples in Thebes, such as the temple at Mut and the temple at the northern gate of the Karnak enclosure, he paid particular attention to the temple at Soleb in Nubia, where he came to be worshiped in conjunction with worship of Amen-Ra.

Amenhotep III and Tiy had four daughters, Sitamen, Hennutaneb, Isis, and Nebetah, all of whom appear prominently in statuary formations and reliefs. In the limestone group sculpture at Medinet Habu, which stands 23 feet (7 meters) high, Amenhotep III is shown seated with Tiy and three daughters: Henuttaneb, the eldest, at the center; Nebetah on the right; and a third, whose name is indistinguishable, on the left. The elevation of the princesses was again so magnanimous that Sitamen and Isis were described as “great royal wives,” most likely within the last ten years of Amenhotep III’s rule. At the Colossi of Memnon, the mortuary site of Amenhotep III, the king is sculptured with three generations of women of royalty: Mutemwia on the left side, Tiy on the right, and an unnamed princess at the center.

It appears that Amenhotep III enjoyed three major coronation anniversary celebrations, one in the thirtieth year of his reign, the second in year thirty-four, and the third in year thirty-six. In his thirtieth year as king, the harvest was in abundance, and Amenhotep III celebrated the occasion of his coronation and the bountiful food production under his leadership, achievements that increased his popularity among the citizenry. The regional leaders of the south and the north were rewarded for this prosperous outcome, a sign of the thriving power of Egypt at that time in ancient history.

Records found in the Tomb of Kherfuf of the third jubilee of Amenhotep III’s coronation indicate that he erected the column of Osiris, which is the symbol of stability. New chambers were opened in the Tura quarry in the first year of Amenhotep III’s reign, which also became the place at which an incomplete statue of Amenhotep III was being sculpted by an officer of the king. Such actions all were signs of the prosperity of the time and indicative of the homage paid to Amenhotep III by his viziers and officials. Evidence from jar inscriptions found at the Malkata palace establishes that Amenhotep III celebrated his three Sed-coronation festivals at Thebes. The first Heb-Sed was celebrated in the Soleb temple of the king in Upper Nubia, at which hundreds of jars of food and drink were brought for the guests at the celebration. It appears that offerings for each successive Heb-Sed were distinct: Beer was featured for the first one, meat for the second, and wine for the third.

Amenhotep III expanded the temple complex that existed prior to his reign. At the Amen-Ra temple, he built a new entrance pylon, the Third Pylon, which incorporated the lateral axis into the Amen-Ra temple. For Opet ceremonial processions, worshipers left from behind the pylon gateway, no longer directly from in front of the entrance, where the processions honoring Hatshepsut had occurred. At the south end of the temple, he extended the lateral axis by adding another pylon, which still stands, as the base of the Tenth Pylon subsequently erected by Horemheb. He had two colossal statues of himself built outside the Third Pylon. At the north end of the Amen-Ra temple, he initiated the construction of a temple for the worship of Montu. To the south, he built a small temple adjacent to the Mut temple and even began renovating the Mut temple. This new temple was massive, with a colonnaded forecourt, most likely with a pylon gateway in front, a hypostyle hall, and a sanctuary area. Three sides of the temple were surrounded by a holy lake, called Isheru, which is there today.

It is conceivable that Amenhotep III started work on the small temple of Khonsu, at the southwestern side of the Amen-Ra temple, or could have made improvements on the existing temple. The numerous sphinxes that led from this temple toward Luxor were certainly erected by him. He pioneered the enlargement of the entire temple complex at Luxor, even while extension plans were under way on the east bank of the Nile River. Many of these works were, in all probability, in preparation for observation of the elaborate Opet festival celebrated during that time.

During Amenhotep III’s reign, gold-mining operations were expanded and improved. The southern Egyptian gold mines were included under the authority of the viceroy of Kush, and evidence of Amenhotep III’s viceroy, Merymose, has been found in Reddesiyeh in southern Egypt. The mine there was producing gold by the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Merymose also launched campaigns in the eastern desert area of Wawat to ensure gold production for Amenhotep’s rule. Another toponym, Akuyta, emerged as a significant gold-producing location, maintained even after Amenhotep III’s reign, through the successive rule of Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV), Horemheb, Ramses II, and Ramses III.

It was this economy of gold production and flourishing of international trade and commerce with neighboring powers in Babylon, Mitanni, and Asia, and even contact with Crete in the Mediterranean, that made the reign of Amenhotep III distinctively famous in that era of antiquity. There are scarabs in the Aegean with Amenhotep III’s name, as well as that of Queen Tiy, suggesting that Amenhotep III was engaged in diplomatic initiatives and in developing strategic alliances to consolidate the Egyptian empire and constrain the growing Hittite threat. Amenhotep III was interested in the Aegean-Anatolia region for a portion of his reign to ensure the security of the Egyptian kingdom, and hence he built ties with the Mycenaeans. One of the ceilings of his palace at Malkata is furnished in Aegean style and reflects pottery from the final palatial period of Minoan civilization.

He administered only one major military campaign, that against rebellious groups in Kush in the fifth year of his reign, which resulted in a resounding success. He clearly loathed the pursuit of military objectives as part of his kingship. Even when the Hittites invaded Mitanni and the provinces of Egypt, shortly after the third jubilee in year thirty-six of his reign, Amenhotep III sent his troops only and did not march with his entire army, as Thutmose III would have done.

Amenhotep III’s rule waned with the invading forces of the Khabiri, desert Semites, inundating neighboring Palestine and Syria. The death of the king’s favorite son and his rapid aging took a devastating personal toll on him as he saw his thirty-eighth year on the throne. He was significantly weakened, and even though his brother sent him an image of the goddess Ishtar of Nineveh to expunge the evil spirits of illness, he was unable to recover. He passed away soon thereafter and was buried with his fathers in the Valley of the Kings, ending the era of Amenhotep the Magnificent. He was succeeded by Amenhotep IV, who later changed his name to Akhenaton.

Significance

Amenhotep III is historic in that his reign lasted the longest of all rulers of the Eighteenth Dynasty and was distinguished by an aura of prosperity and peace, security, and well-being for the citizens of Egypt during that period, notwithstanding the traditional tribute that had to be paid to the royal state by all subjects. Amenhotep III revolutionized the Nile Valley, ushering in an era of food surpluses and economic vitality unseen before in ancient Egypt. Under his rule, there were no military penetrations into western Asia, as he industriously worked to cultivate peaceful relations among diverse international factions and powers, boosting his country’s standing in global trade and commerce and elevating his status among regional leaders. He demonstrated, par excellence, that diplomacy is effective, in contrast with militarism.

As king, Amenhotep III was a pioneer architect and innovative builder. He was responsible for constructing an entire temple, the largest by any one person, in Thebes. No king of Egypt left so many monuments and temples as Amenhotep III, except for Ramses II, who took over many of the buildings constructed by Amenhotep III for himself. Amenhotep III clearly was a religious ruler, whose tribute to the gods, and to his fame, is evident in the massive stone structures that stand today, unlike those of many who preceded and succeeded him. He was the first king whose place of burial was outside the view of the Nile.

Not only was the rule of Amenhotep III characterized by a euphoric aura, in which some of the more aggressive traits of preceding and successive rulers of the Eighteenth Dynasty were absent, but he also singularly established a regime that accorded his wife coequal governing status, unprecedented in his day and unlike that of any other queen of classical Egyptian antiquity. Amenhotep III patently implemented a policy of egalitarianism for women and mutual reciprocity in relations with women, including his daughters, that served as a paradigm for future rulers and has been etched in the annals of classical history.

Finally, Amenhotep III was inclusive in his administration and heralded a new era of incorporation of multiethnic communities into a cohesive nation in Egypt, unlike preceding administrations. His embracing of the peoples of Nubia was one indication of this inclusiveness, to the point that some African-centered scholars refer to the Eighteenth Dynasty as the Black Dynasty.

Rulers of the Eighteenth Dynasty

Rulers are listed with their reign dates

1570-1546

• Ahmose I

1546-1524

• Amenhotep I

1524-1518

• Thutmose I

1518-1504

• Thutmose II

1504-1450

• Thutmose III

c. 1503-1482

• Hatshepsut

1450-1419

• Amenhotep II

1419-1386

• Thutmose IV

1386-1349

• Amenhotep III

1350-1334

• Akhenaton

1336-1334

• Smenkhare

1334-1325

• Tutankhamen

1325-1321

• Ay

1321-1295

• Horemheb

Bibliography

Brier, Bob, and Hoyt Hobbs. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999. This book has a listing of the kings of the New Kingdom and a section on Amenhotep III’s rule.

Fletcher, Joann. Chronicle of a Pharaoh: The Intimate Life of Amenhotep III. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. This attractive, richly illustrated little book relates the life of Amenhotep III, who ruled Egypt in the fourteenth century b.c.e. Covers his political skills and building of the temple of Luxor but also focuses on some of the more intimate details of Amenhotep’s life.

Jenkins, Earnestine. A Glorious Past: Ancient Egypt, Ethiopia, and Nubia. New York: Chelsea House, 1995. Connects the histories of ancient Egypt, Ethiopia, and Nubia to African Americans and has wonderful photographs of paintings and sculptures that illustrate the foundational African character of these classic civilizations.

Manning, Stuart W. A Test of Time: The Volcano of Thera and the Chronology and History of the Aegean and East Mediterranean in the Mid-Second Millennium B.C. Oakville, Conn.: Oxbow Books, 1999. Illuminates the archaeological discoveries in the Aegean region from the time of Amenhotep III’s rule and describes in detail the role of skilled global diplomat that Amenhotep III played.

O’Connor, David, and Eric Cline, eds. Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997. The authors furnish a scholastic exposition on the construction of temples and monuments under Amenhotep III’s reign, funerary arts, organization of the city and the politics of government, and international relations under the ruler.

Petrie, William M. Flinders. A History of Egypt During the XVIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties. 4th ed. Vol. 2. Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1972. Contains an elaboration on the early life of Amenhotep III, his wife’s role in ruling, his family, the monuments and temples of the king, and his officials. Provides a reliable chronology of events leading up to Amenhotep III’s reign and following, accompanied by depictions of figures.

Rice, Michael. Egypt’s Making: The Origins of Ancient Egypt 5000-2000 B.C.E. New York: Routledge, 1990. Discusses ancient Egyptian civilization and Amenhotep III’s reign.

Strudwick, Nigel, and Helen Strudwick. Thebes in Egypt: A Guide to the Tombs and Temples of Ancient Luxor. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999. Has instructive documentation of Amenhotep III’s rule, with color photographs of temples and tombs in Luxor that illustrate the magnitude of Amenhotep III’s creativity.

Trigger, B. G., B. J. Kemp, D. O’Connor, and A. B. Lloyd. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Describes the intimate relationship of Egypt and Nubia, particularly during the reign of Amenhotep III, the structure of the government in the New Kingdom (1152-1069 b.c.e.), and the historic legacy that Amenhotep III left with regard to temple construction, political governance and organization, and cultic associations of kingship.

Van Sertima, Ivan, ed. Nile Valley Civilizations; Proceedings of the Nile Valley Conference, Atlanta, September 26-30, 1985. New Brunswick, N.J.: Journal of African Civilizations, 1985. A range of articles describing the black roots and continental African relationships of early Egyptian civilization, including sections on Nubian influences on Amenhotep III and his queen Tiy, information that is not discussed in most other books on Amenhotep III.