Analysis: Advice for Keeping Slaves in Ancient Rome

Date: c. 160 BCE

Geographic Region: Rome

Author: Cato the Elder

Summary Overview

Ancient Rome grew in large part because of the labor of enslaved workers. Slaves were owned and employed at all levels of Roman society—in households, in temples, in agricultural fields, in construction and engineering projects, in the military, in shops and businesses, and more. This document lists recommendations for slave owners on how to provision their slaves with clothing, food, wine, olives, and olive oil. It offers insight not only into the institution of slavery, but also into the broader economic and social systems of ancient Rome.

Defining Moment

In 509 BCE, ancient Romans threw off monarchical rule and established the Roman Republic, with a government steered by the Senate. The Republic lasted nearly five hundred years, until 27 BCE, when one of the leaders of the Republic, Octavian, declared himself Caesar Augustus, the first emperor of the Roman Empire. That empire, centered on Rome, lasted until its conquest by a wave of invading Germanic peoples in the fifth century. Ancient Rome, under first the Roman Republic and then the Roman Empire, endured for nearly one thousand years. Throughout that history, slavery was a mainstay of Roman society.

Roman slaves—men, women, and children, Roman and non-Roman—worked in most areas of Roman life. They served as farmers, laborers, builders, artisans, servants, and miners, as well as in the military as porters and camp assistants. They even served in professional capacities, as accountants, physicians, scribes, secretaries, tutors, and educators. Slaves occupied a vital role in Roman society. One source suggests that enslaved persons made up as much as 25 to 30 percent of the Roman population. However, despite the integral function of the slave class in ancient Rome, slaves were slaves; they were considered possessions, not independent people, and as such, they were owned by and subject to the will of their masters. They had no rights, no legal recourse, and no part in society save that permitted and assigned to them. A process for manumission, or being set free, did exist, but most slaves remained slaves.

The experience of enslaved persons varied drastically, depending on how one became a slave, on the work and abilities of the enslaved person, and on the status and inclinations of the slave's owner. Historians have learned about slavery from a variety of sources, ranging from Roman literature to law, personal letters, trade records, and official statements. These sources provide insight into varied experiences. This document, written by Cato the Elder, dates to about 170 BCE, during what is considered the Middle Republic. During this period, Roman citizenry comprised patricians—who occupied the professional military, religious, business, and political classes—and plebeians—who occupied the working classes as farmers, artisans, and other laborers. Beneath these classes were slaves. The Republic grew rapidly, and many slaves were gained through capture in war. Most slaves were put to work in the agricultural fields that supported the Republic.

Author Biography and Document Information

Marcus Porcius Cato (later known as Cato the Elder and Cato the Censor) was born in what is now Italy in 234 BCE among the plebeian classes. He served in the military during the Second Punic War (218–201 BCE) and then pursued a career in politics with the help of the patrician Lucius Valerius Flaccus. He served in various offices before becoming a consul—the highest elected office in the Roman Republic—along with Lucius Valerius Flaccus in 195 BCE, and then a censor, another type of magistrate, in 184 BCE. During his service in public office, Cato became known for his conservative social positions and rigid enforcement of tradition and law. He ardently supported laws to restrain luxury and excess, to restrict the freedoms of women, and to resist the influence of Greek culture. He is believed to have authored many works—including a history of Rome known as Origines (168–149 BCE)—and more than a hundred speeches. Only one of his longer works has survived intact—De agricultura (ca. 160 BCE; On Agriculture, 1913; sometimes translated as On Farming), a guide to Roman agricultural practices. This document is an excerpt from that work.

Document Analysis

The advice provided by Cato the Elder in De agricultura is intended primarily for farm owners. The Roman Republic depended heavily on farm production to support its ever-growing population, and as the Republic expanded, the diversity of the fields and produce—and workers—also increased. Grains, olives, corn, and grapes were staples of production, and beekeeping and the raising of livestock, such as goats and cattle, were also important. Ancient Romans also grew a variety of other fruits, vegetables, and herbs.

Although many families owned and operated their own farms, wealthy landowners also ran large estates called latifundia (latifundium, singular), with many fields toiled by various ranks of slaves. Cato first makes recommendations on the ration, or amount, of wheat and bread that should be given to slaves. He notes the different roles among the agricultural slaves: laborer, overseer, housekeeper, foreman, head shepherd, and chain gang. These demarcations emphasize the agricultural nature of the advice and give insight into the types of jobs performed. Notably, the amount of food appears tied to the amount of labor done, as the laborers and chain-gang workers are allotted the most food. Also, the field workers receive more food during the more intensive summer and harvest seasons.

The next section, on rationing wine, makes clear the importance of grapes and wine in Roman culture. Wine was a staple drink in Roman households; they viewed it as an essential beverage, and so people of all classes, even slaves, were able to partake. Cultivation of grapes and winemaking became focal points of Roman economic activity. Also important is Cato's notation to provide extra rations on specific feast days—Saturnalia, in honor of Saturn, the god of wealth and plenty, and Compitalia, in honor of neighborhood guardian deities known as Lares Compitales. Cato also advises that extra rations be given to the chain gang—members of which would have done most of the productive agricultural work—based on their performance.

The rationing of another important staple, olives, is addressed next. Most olives harvested would have been prepared for trade, with some being consumed by the household. Cato encourages farmers to save “windfall” olives, which could not be sent to market, as well as “ripe olives from which only a small yield could be gained” to ration among the slaves. Cato suggests substituting fish pickle and vinegar when olive supplies deplete. Likewise, each slave was allotted a small amount of olive oil and salt each year. Again, this section provides insight into the types of foods considered essential—olives, which have a high quantity of nutrients, including healthy fats, thrived in ancient Rome's Mediterranean climate. It also demonstrates an aversion to waste: “Keep all the windfall olives you can.”

The last bit of guidance concerns clothes. In ancient Rome, slaves were, outwardly, virtually indistinguishable from Roman citizens. Proposals to distinguish them by some means of dress or other marker were dismissed for fear that enslaved people might realize their numbers and rebel. Cato calls for plain clothes: “a tunic three and a half feet long and a blanket-cloak every other year,” attire that would have enabled workers to perform their duties without setting them apart. Many plebeians would have worn a similar fashion. Again, Cato also urges economy of use by advising owners to take in old clothes to remake for further use. The excerpt concludes by recommending one “good pair of clogs every other year.” Clogs, sandal-like shoes with a thick sole, would have protected workers' feet. Considering sandals were replaced only once every other year, slaves would have been pressed to keep them in good condition.

Bibliography and Additional Reading

Bradley, Keith. Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 1994. Print.

Dyson, Stephen L. Rome: A Living Portrait of an Ancient City. Baltimore: John Hopkins UP, 2010. Print.

MacMullen, Ramsay. Roman Social Relations, 50 B.C. to A.D. 284. New Haven: Yale UP, 1974. Print.

“The Roman Empire in the First Century: Slaves and Freemen.” PBS. Devillier Donegan Enterprises, 2006. Web. 27 Feb. 2015.

“The Roman Empire in the First Century: Social Order.” PBS. Devillier Donegan Enterprises, 2006. Web. 27 Feb. 2015.