Analysis: The Doctrine of the Mean, Section 2

Date: c. 450 BCE

Geographic Region: China

Author: Confucius; Kong Ji

Summary Overview

The Doctrine of the Mean(Zhōng yōng in Chinese) was written by Kong Ji, the grandson of Confucius and a respected teacher in his own right. It is considered a pivotal text in Confucianism, a way of life and ethical code based on the teachings of the sixth-century BCE Chinese philosopher. For over two thousand years, Confucian ideas have influenced East Asian systems of government, law, and education. Over time, this ethical philosophy has grown to include elements of religious practice, such as ancestor worship and a concept of the divine. Early texts, however, focused on the achievement of harmony through proper behavior. The Doctrine of the Mean came to be included among the Four Books, the key texts of Confucianism compiled in the twelfth century. The Doctrine of the Mean lays out the fundamental Confucian teaching of balance, or the middle way, as a key to living a harmonious life.

Defining Moment

Confucius was born in 551 BCE, in the Lu state of ancient China. Little is known of his early life, but he was born into a time of considerable political instability, as the powerful feudal system of the Zhou dynasty was disintegrating. Zhou kings, known not only for their military power, but for their wisdom, had maintained control of much of China for over four hundred years. At the end of the eighth century BCE, however, they had been attacked with increasing frequency by tribes from Central Asia and forced to move their capital to the east. By the time of Confucius's birth, the feudal system, with its elaborate rites and rituals, had disintegrated into semiautonomous dukedoms that were often in conflict with each other. Constant regime change and political crisis fostered an environment of extremes. Intemperance, lust, and violence were on display in ruling houses, and Confucius, like many of his countrymen, felt that society was in precipitous decline and faced an ethical crisis.

Confucius sought an answer to the question of how to return society to a state of harmony, attempting to develop an ethical system that would reestablish the traditional pillars of stability. Respectful, virtuous family relationships were at the heart of this system, with schools, towns, the state, and the kingdom radiating outward from there. Confucius developed a social philosophy based on the principle of loving others, along with ritualized self-discipline, and he is perhaps best known in the Western traditions for his early formulation of the Golden Rule: “What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others.” He taught that effective leaders were not those who pursued wealth or power, but those who encouraged their people to follow the law and set a virtuous example.

After Confucius died, his disciples gathered lessons that he had taught into a collection of stories and quotes known as the Analects (late sixth or early fifth century BCE). Many centuries later, in 1190, the Confucian scholar Zhu Xi compiled and published what he considered the four foundational texts of Confucianism, along with his commentary on them. These became the most important documents in Chinese public life and were required reading for anyone wishing to hold a government position. The four books included the Analects, Kong Ji's Doctrine of the Mean, a treatise on government and ethics known as Daxue (or Great Learning), and a lengthy text of conversations and stories attributed to Confucian scholar Mencius. These texts revitalized interest in Confucianism, which became the predominant ideological system in China. The inclusion of the Doctrine of the Mean in these works established its importance to the ethical foundation and worldview of Confucianism's adherents.

Author Biography and Document Information

Kong Ji is the birth name of the Chinese philosopher known by the honorary name of Zisi. He was born around 483 BCE, the only grandson of Confucius. He is believed to have studied under Zengzi, a disciple of his grandfather. Zisi, in turn, is said to have introduced Mencius to Confucius's teachings and, with Mencius, is considered one of the key early teachers of Confucian philosophy. Archeological evidence has uncovered bamboo scrolls in tombs from between 475 and 221 BCE that suggest that Zisi was the master of a school. Zisi's pivotal work, the Zhōng yōng, known as the Doctrine of the Mean, was incorporated into the Four Books, the foundational texts of orthodox Confucianism in the late twelfth century, during the Song dynasty. Kong Ji died around 402 BCE and is buried in the Confucius Cemetery with his father and grandfather in what is now China's Shandong Province.

Document Analysis

The Doctrine of the Mean is written in a sort of blank verse, divided into sections. This second section is titled “Cleaving to the Central Mean.” Though this work was not written by Confucius, the teachings are quoted from him, and the structure of this selection demonstrates that. The first stanza begins, “Confucius said,” and each stanza thereafter begins, “The Master said”—echoing the common way his followers referred to Confucius. The idea of the mean, or middle way, is established at the beginning of this selection as being the key to virtuous action. It is not an easy path, however, and “Few of the people can long cleave to it.” The junzi, or those who have achieved a virtuous life, will seek the middle way, and keep to it. When the mean is rejected by “the small man,” it leads to extremes, while the virtuous man is exact, timely, and disciplined.

Confucius spends significant time bemoaning how few people can actually achieve the mean in their life, though all should seek it. Those who seek knowledge, particularly leaders, are celebrated in this passage, particularly the Emperor Shun, who is believed to have lived between 2294 and 2184 BCE, and became a model to Confucian scholars of the modest and virtuous ruler. “He put evil in the shadow and raised up good.” Key to his success was his adherence to the mean, “the center,” in ruling his people, though he understood the extremes. He “grasped both ends.” Confucius lamented that all men think they are wise, but there are few who actually are, since they are not long able to keep to the mean. “None can keep it for a round month.” Yan Hui, one of the favorite disciples of Confucius and a teacher revered by his followers, demonstrated his adherence to the mean by “press(ing) it to his heart.”

The text also makes frequent mention of the “Dao,” or “Way”—a very similar, though not identical, term to the central concept of Daoism or Taoism, another ancient Chinese philosophical system. Similarly to the mean, the Dao represents a kind of ethical ideal, which a political state might possess or not. The master indicates that the junzi or virtuous man will follow the same path, whether the state is possessed of the Dao or not—if it is not, the virtuous man will suffer, and if it is, he will find worldly success.

Bibliography and Additional Reading

Kaizuka, Shigeki & Geoffrey Bownas. Confucius: His Life and Thought. Mineola: Dover, 2002. Print.

Legge, James. Confucian “Analects,” “The Great Learning,” and “The Doctrine of the Mean.” 1861. New York: Dover, 1971. Print.

Youlan, Feng. A History of Chinese Philosophy: Vol. 1, The Period of the Philosophers. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1983. Print.