Animals and Human Society

Abstract

This article examines the complex relationships that humans have with animals as—sources of food, companions, objects of sports, sources of entertainment, and cultural icons. The history of human-animal relationships is reviewed along with how those relationships change as societies evolve into industrial and postindustrial societies. The issues that make defining and enforcing animal welfare policies and laws and how standards of animal welfare are decided are explored. How the relationships between humans and animals are changing in the twenty-first century is also reviewed.

Overview

Humans and non-human animals have had a social, cultural, and ecological relationship as long as they have existed. As societies evolved from hunting and gathering to agrarian, industrial, and beyond, so has the relationship between humans and animals. The relationship is impacted by the state of evolution in a society, as well as the culture, history, and economics of a society (Phillips & McCulloch, 2005). Humans have always had numerous types of relationships with animals and continue to use non-human animals in multiple ways. Animals provide some part of the food supply for humans in virtually all societies. This includes both consumption of animals themselves—with global meat consumption rising sharply from the mid-twentieth century—and foods such as eggs and milk (Bond, 2008). Animals have also long been a source for various non-food products for human use such as clothing, adornment, or implements.

Animals have also provided humans with companionship and service as pets or working animals. Dogs and cats have served as working animals, guardians, hunters, and pets for thousands of years, dating to ancient Egypt and earlier. In 2021, 46 percent of US households had a pet dog and 25 percent had a pet cat (Applebaum, 2021). Working animals such as oxen, mules, horses, camels, and elephants have enabled civilizations to farm and transport goods to market. Many types of animals have been used as workers depending on what species are found locally or could be imported. Just as these animals were used in producing and moving food products, they were also used to enable nations and empires to fight wars (Lamb, 2004; Rees, 2007).

Animals have been exploited for sports such as racing and fighting, where they compete against each other. Dog fighting came into the spotlight in the United States when Michael Vick, a National Football League star, was under investigation for his involvement in the activity. This high-profile case helped to make the public aware of the extent of dog fighting and the cruel treatment inflicted on the dogs used in the fights (Tuttle & Samuels, 2007). Many cultures have been attracted to competitions like rodeos and bullfighting, where humans attempt to triumph over animals.

Animals are historically the objects of various human activities, including hunting and fishing. In some cases, animals have been hunted to extinction or near extinction. Such hunting can devastate animal populations, especially among those animals that are slow to breed (Clarke, 2003; Maddox, 2022). In modern times, ecological perspectives have helped inform legislation or other measures aimed at preservation of specific endangered or threatened species. Notably, some species that have been hunted near extinction have been revived, such as the North American bison, which has been thriving in small numbers in the western United States (Lulka, 2008).

In other cases, the overpopulation of one type of animal can cause problems in the ecosystem. For example, the overabundance of white-tailed deer in the United States has had significant detrimental ecological, environmental, and social impacts. Here hunters might be viewed as providing a service to the community and to the deer population because they thin the herds, which reduces stress on the environment and strengthens the breeding stock of the deer population (Maddox, 2022). Further, overpopulation may be controlled using wildlife fertility control methods, an alternative to the killing programs/hunting. Additionally, the demand and sale of wildlife products such as ivory have long fueled the hunting and killing or mistreatment of animals.

Societies have enshrined animals in their arts, literature, and media. Paintings of animals have been found in prehistoric caves and the depiction of animals in art continues into modern times. Animals such as rare birds and others considered exotic or mysterious have been romanticized by numerous artists (Rhodes, 2004). Many of these images have been considered a form of entertainment, such as sculptured giant pandas or cows displayed on the streets and in the parks of large urban areas (Broglio, 2005). Many artists who specialize in wildlife art have donated millions of dollars of the proceeds of the sales of their art to support animal-related causes (Milius, 1991).

Animals have long had roles in entertainment venues such as circus acts. As electronic communications technology evolved, animals have remained a staple in entertainment and are frequently used in television shows and movies. Wildlife films have become very popular on television and have been a favorite of viewing audiences since they appeared in movie theaters in the 1950s and 1960s (Lovejoy, 2001). Several television channels have offered extensive programming covering animals, such as the Nature Channel, Animal Planet, the Discovery Channel, and National Geographic television.

The Evolution of Human-animal Relationships. Since the end of World War II, human-animal relationships have changed in industrialized nations more so than in the nonindustrialized nations of the world. There has been a rapidly growing interest in animal welfare in the industrialized nations but in the nonindustrialized nations, human-animal relationships and the emphasis on animal exploitation have remained largely the same. The demographics of industrialized nations shifted more to an urban environment with a food-service industry and supply-chain system that has allowed the status of urban animals to move from food source to pet. There have also been numerous animal-welfare groups established and numerous animal-welfare laws enacted (Tuomivaara, 2005; Medina, 2008).

Animal Welfare Efforts. The concept of animal welfare became increasingly widespread in the middle of the twentieth century. Animal welfare initially considered the animal's physiological needs—food, appropriate shelter, and adequate surroundings. Twenty-first century animal welfare efforts also address the psychological well-being of the animals as well as their ability to thrive socially with or around other animals (Veissier & Forkman, 2008). However, there is not a universal agreement on what constitutes an appropriate measure of animal welfare, and, not surprisingly, the various affected parties—farmers and animal-product producers, veterinarians, animal-rights activists, and lawmakers—continually fail to reach a consensus (Fraser, 2008).

Applications

Human & Animal Relationships in the Twenty-First Century. The lives and survival of humans and animals have been intertwined throughout history. As much of the world moves into an industrial or postindustrial economy, the relationships between humans and animals remain as strong as ever. However, the nature of the relationships has changed in several ways. Humans have had dogs and cats, in particular, living with them in a domesticated manner for thousands of years as companions, hunters, and guards. Humans and their pets often form family-like bonds. In modern times animals have served for some people as essentially replacements for children or perhaps even spouses (Applebaum, 2021).

The healing power of animal products has long been known. Animal products have been used in making medicines for thousands of years. Substances derived from processing animal organs, bones, skins, tusks, and other animal parts have been used in making medicines for humans in several parts of the world and still are used in making modern pharmaceuticals (Alves & Rosa, 2005). It has also become widely accepted that animals can play a role in healthcare and healing for physical as well as psychological ailments. Some research even indicates that pets lower blood pressure, reduce stress, and may raise levels of oxytocin ("The human-animal bond," 2018). This has opened up new career paths for many animals (Swift & Siteman, 1997; Peterson, 1999).

The Role of Pets in Healthcare. Animals have provided considerable positive healthcare benefits for a variety of people. The use of service animals that can assist people with vision or hearing impairments has become commonplace. Although there is some skepticism, it has been suggested that some dogs are capable of detecting cancer in humans (Cross, 1998). There has been a considerable body of research developed on the role of pets or companion animals in modern society and much research has focused on the positive impact on the physical and mental health of pet owners (Applebaum, 2021; Hennings, 1999; Flynn, 2000).

Clearly, having contact with animals through animal assisted therapy programs has proved to have a positive impact on improving health in conjunction with traditional forms of therapy for conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder (Lefkowitz, et al., 2005). It has also been found that some patients show improvement in mental health after spending time on farms where there are animals ("Can I," 2008). Research shows that contact with pets can have a positive impact in moderating rates of suicide among some abused women (Applebaum, 2021; Fitzgerald, 2007). It has also been found that prison inmates that participate in prison-based animal programs (PAPs) benefit both psychologically and physically by being associated with animal-assisted therapy (Furst, 2007). Other research shows that there is a very complex relationship between pet ownership and how much people laugh; that dogs provide a type of friendship that increases laughter and subsequently a positive impact on health (Applebaum, 2021; Valeri, 2006). The use of equine-assisted experiential therapy has also positively contributed to the mental health of participants.

The Growth of Ecotourism. Modern ecotourism emerged in the mid-twentieth century and has grown significantly into the twenty-first. A common ecotourism model involves collecting or preserving wildlife and making it accessible to tourists for viewing and photography opportunities (Buckley, 2009). The first goal of ecotourism is the conservation of wildlife combined with a system of conservation that generates enough revenue to cover at least part of the cost of conservation. There are several aspects of the economics of ecotourism beyond just paying the cost of operating a reserve. Ecotourism efforts are also ideally designed to provide a stable enough economy to support local populations and engage that population in the preservation process, in turn reducing the poaching or slaughter of animals. As ecotourism efforts grow, the local economy can grow, especially in the tourist services realm (Clifton & Benson, 2006).

Although there have been numerous ecotourism projects started in almost all parts of the world, the ultimate success of ecotourism as a model to preserve animal life has yet to be thoroughly tested. One of the major challenges is to ensure that revenue keeps flowing into the enterprises. The success of ecotourism projects often rests on drawing travelers from far away. When travel is curtailed because of economic downturns or civil disruption in an area, revenues are most likely to decline (Powell & Ham, 2008).

Other issues concerning ecotourism pointed out by conservationists are the environmental impacts of an increased number of travelers as well as the impact that tourists may have on the welfare of the animals. These concerns often bring into question the methods of managing ecotourism sites and priority setting for long-term sustainability. In simple terms, is the priority to preserve wildlife or to serve tourists and generate revenue? These are two goals that can often collide in ecotourism management (Dickey & Higham, 2005). This may be especially true if there is not a guiding influence to help set goals and develop management practices (Fennell, 2008).

There have been many examples in which tour operators truly failed to put the concern for animals above that of revenue generation. One such documented case was that of turtles being ridden by tourists along the Great Barrier Reef on the coast of Australia. The turtles were virtually tormented by tourists; this eventually drove the population of turtles down and pretty much ended "turtle tourism," as it was known (Pocock, 2006).

Zoo Management. Although the practice of zoo keeping has been around for about three thousand years, zoos have faced challenges similar to those that ecotourism projects face (Olukole & Gbdebo, 2008). The primary goal of a zoo is to display animals so that visitors may view them. The second goal of a zoo is to help preserve various species of animals. As with ecotourism, these goals can very readily clash. There have been many cases that demonstrate that zoos often have difficulty maintaining a balance between revenue and operating profits and protecting and preserving animals held in captivity at the zoo ("What's the mission?" 1997). The way zoos are managed and how animals are treated in zoos has changed considerably over the last few decades. The ethics of zoo management have shifted considerably, moving from simple display of animals to conservation and preservation of species. Still, most zoos remain ill-equipped in the twenty-first century to do little more than improve the surroundings of the animals they hold (Praded, 2002). There are, of course, shining examples, such as the Bronx Zoo, which built a $43 million replica of a rainforest to house endangered species (Day, 1999).

One issue in improving zoo life for animals living in captivity is that there is a considerable difference in opinion as to what constitutes animal welfare in zoos. Research is helpful but does not necessarily always translate into changes in managing captive animals. Research shows, for example, that the more a species roams the wild, the more likely they are to not fare well in captivity (Francisco, 2003). However, zoos, by nature, are smaller than the wild and find it impossible to replicate conditions in the wild completely. Zoos are often underfunded when it comes to providing proper care for all the animals held at the zoo. Dental care, for example, has long been recognized as a major problem among zoo animals and there has been considerable effort put forth to address those issues since the 1980s (Glatt et al., 2008).

Factory Farming. As the consumption and demand for meat products increases around the world, many farming operations have turned into factory farm environments. These industry-like farms raise and slaughter thousands of animals each year in high-density facilities that have little resemblance to more agrarian farming styles that evolved over thousands of years (Nierenberg, 2003). Research supports the proposition that the nature of the human-animal relationship in farming environments impacts how animals produce milk, offspring, or meat products. Many believe that the way animals are treated in factory farms has a generally negative impact on animal health and welfare and affects the quality of the animal products (Bertenshaw & Rowlinson, 2009). Aspects of factory farming can contribute to the development and spread of animal-borne diseases. About 70 percent of new human diseases originate in animals. This makes the proper care of farm animals more important and raises concerns about the quality control of animal products that move across international borders (Karesh & Cook, 2005; Block, 2008).

The high-density nature of factory farms contributes to various types of air, water, and ground pollution, and governments around the world are being urged to restrict how close these operations can be located to population centers ("Factory Farms," 2007). To reduce the risks and curb the criticisms, many factory farm operations are revamping their animal confinement methods in response to European Union farm-policy reforms and pressure from consumer and advocacy groups and lawsuits in the United States (Block, 2008).

Food safety regulators can use technology that has dramatically advanced in the late-twentieth and early twenty-first centuries to enforce regulations and monitor quality and potential contamination (Thompson, 2001). These advances are critical in a global economy where people and products can move worldwide quickly, leading to a potentially catastrophic spread of diseases and contaminants across the globe. The 2009 outbreak of the swine flu, for example, was found to be an influenza virus that was part swine, part human, part avian (Friscolanti et al., 2009). Similarly, the COVID-19 pandemic that caused global disruption in 2020 was tentatively linked to bats and wildlife markets in China.

Animal Cloning. Animal cloning is the genetically controlled replication of farm animals. It is difficult to determine or predict the long-range consequences of cloning animals, such as whether there are any food safety risks involved with consuming cloned animals (Bren, 2007). Elected officials, regulators, and consumers are all somewhat fearful of cloning. According to the National Human Genome Research Institute, the first mammal was successfully cloned in 1996 after 276 attempts. Cats, deer, dogs, horses, mules, oxen, rabbits, and rats have been cloned since this date, though the process is expensive and, often, unsuccessful ("Cloning facts sheet," 2020).

In many ways, cloning is merely an extension of selective breeding or the use of hormone-powered food supplements and veterinary drugs. Farm animals are managed, fed, and slaughtered in manners that yield the most products at the lowest cost and thus higher profits for the producers. This process is alarming to many people and criticized by animal-rights advocates and conservationists. However, one thing that all should keep in mind is that the cloning processes being developed with farm animals may someday be used to save a wide variety of endangered species (Campbell et al., 2005).

Issues

Establishing & Enforcing Standards for Animal Welfare. The animal-welfare debate is political, economic, social, and philosophical. The definition of appropriate welfare for animals is undergoing debate and is being defined in several different ways. Some interest groups point out that there is not a scientific consensus on what standards animal-welfare practices should be based (Sheppard, 2005). Additionally, different animals have vastly different needs, and the industries that raise animals have different perspectives and different economics (Duncan, 2001).

As much as people love animals and as much as societies profess to want to protect the welfare and the rights of animals, the relationship between humans and animals is still riddled with human perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes, many of which are detrimental to animals in one form or another (Jepson, 2008). For example, just because people love their pets does not necessarily mean that they provide the best care for their animals. Do pets get enough exercise? Do pets have a properly balanced diet? Do the companion animals of the elderly have suitable housing to meet their physical and psychological needs? In the United States, a country where people spend billions of dollars on pets, these questions remain unanswered, and the welfare of these animals remains uncertain (Ormerod, 2005). Other social factors can also complicate what might initially seem to be a simple love of animals and the desire to advocate for and protect them. Women, for example, tend to outnumber men in attending animal welfare rallies or demonstrations. Yet women are also more likely to "collect" larger numbers of animals at home. These behaviors can be contradictory in that an overpopulation of animals in a home can lead to poor health conditions for the animals as well as for the people that house them (Herzog, 2007).

It is also recognized that pet ownership may have some negative effects for owners as well as pets. When it comes to managing allergies, for example, many people are reluctant to give up their pets even when advised by their healthcare providers that the animals are contributing to allergic conditions ("Links," 2006). There is some concern about national policy development and the increasing use of companion animals in healthcare. Concerns have focused on companion animals' welfare to ensure they are properly cared for in-home health situations. The potential for diseases to be transmitted from animals to humans has yet to be fully addressed in all healthcare situations (Reaser, et al., 2008). Such health issues are of special concern in cases where pet owners have compromised immune systems (Conti, et al., 1995).

Animals kept at home can also be subject to the mental ills or poor living habits of their owners. Aggressive behavior or antisocial behavior on the part of pet owners often results in some form of animal abuse (Oleson & Henry, 2009). Many people believe that family pets have a positive impact on children, and in many cases this may be true. But abused children or children with psychological issues or even self-esteem issues can end up being abusive to their pets (Applebaum, 2021; Beatson & Halloran, 2007; Montminy-Danna, 2007). Thus, the welfare of these animals remains uncertain.

There is no doubt that many societies are indeed moving forward when it comes to protecting the welfare and rights of animals. Several advocacy groups have labored for over one hundred years to enact laws and to set standards for animal welfare. The American Veterinary Medical Associations (AVMA) set eight standards for animal welfare in 2006. These standards cover responsible use, animal care, environmental conditions, psychological and physiological impact, and how to manage population control (Fiala, 2006). In 2007, the University of Florida, College of Veterinary Medicine started to develop a veterinary forensics program to train people in analyzing crimes committed against animals (Lewis, 2009). In early 2023, the curriculum includes forensic sciences, biology, zoology, wildlife, and natural resource conservation fields. All these actions are intended to make the welfare of animals more certain. Many experts suggest a need for further work on animal welfare, including a widely accepted baseline as to what constitutes welfare.

Conclusion

The lives of animals and humans are intertwined in almost every aspect of our existence together. However, numerous issues remain in human-animal relationships. Notably, broad socioeconomic trends have very real impacts on animals that are often overlooked. For example, the 2008 global financial crisis was linked to a spike in animal abandonment incidents and relinquishments as people struggled to afford pet ownership. The COVID-19 pandemic and resulting economic downturn in 2020 caused similar challenges for many, but at the same time, wild animals were seen to flourish in areas where human activity was drastically reduced. Such examples only begin to indicate the extremely complex and closely interwoven relationship between animals and human society.

Terms & Concepts

Animal Assisted Therapy: The use of animals to provide or compliment therapeutic treatment for humans suffering from mental or physical illnesses.

Animal Welfare Laws: Social policy, laws, regulations, and ordinances that protect animals from mistreatment, misuse, abuse, or neglect.

Companion Animals: Animals that have suitable characteristics or that are trained to provide companionship or service to people to improve mental and physical health.

Ecotourism: A business endeavor supported by governments, nonprofit organizations, or private enterprise that maintains, markets, and services facilities that provide tourists with access to animals or nature sites for viewing or photographic opportunities.

Factory Farm: A farming operation designed to raise large numbers of animals in a small space using a variety of industrial methods to maximize production and profit.

Veterinary Forensics: A scientific approach to gather evidence to explain a crime committed against an animal.

Working Animals: Animals that provide some type of service function to human societies such as guard dogs, hunters, herding animals, or guides for the impaired.

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Jepson, J. (2008). A linguistic analysis of discourse on the killing of nonhuman animals. Society & Animals, 16, 127-148. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=31992006&site=ehost-live

Karesh, W., & Cook, R. (2005). The human-animal link. Foreign Affairs, 84, 38-50. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=17327800&site=ehost-live

Knight, S., & Barnett, L. (2008). Justifying attitudes toward animal use: A qualitative study of people's views and beliefs. Anthrozoos, 21, 31-42. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=31459620&site=ehost-live

Lamb, O. (2004). Historical horses. Geographical (Campion Interactive Publishing), 76, 86-93. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=14112493&site=ehost-live

Lefkowitz, C., Paharia, I., Prout, M., Debiak, D., & Bleiberg, J. (2005). Animal-assisted prolonged exposure: A treatment for survivors of sexual assault suffering posttraumatic stress disorder. Society & Animals, 13, 275-295. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=18744685&site=ehost-live

Links between patient health and pet ownership. (2006). Nursing Standard, 20, 18-23. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=19654754&site=ehost-live

Lewis, J. (2009). University of Florida to offer veterinary forensics training. DVM: The Newsmagazine of Veterinary Medicine, 6-7. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=44316114&site=ehost-live

Lovejoy, T. (2001). Cinemas of the wild. Science, 291(5501), 50. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=4019584&site=ehost-live

Lulka, D. (2008). The paradoxical nature of growth in the US bison industry. Journal of Cultural Geography, 25, 31-56. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=31697567&site=ehost-live

Maddox, B. (2022, August 11). Why hunting is critical for Population Control. Silencer Central. Retrieved June 10, 2023, from https://www.silencercentral.com/blog/why-hunting-is-critical-for-population-control

Maple, T. (2007). Toward a science of welfare for animals in the zoo. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 10, 63-70. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=24984452&site=ehost-live

Medina, L. (2008). Building a culture of animal welfare: Past, present and future. Annual Review of Biomedical Sciences, 10, T104-T111. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=36116147&site=ehost-live

Milius, S. (1991). Art with a conscience. National Wildlife, 29, 30. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9107224572&site=ehost-live

Mokhiber, R. (2000). Factory farm phase out. Multinational Monitor, 21, 30. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=3683269&site=ehost-live

Montminy-Danna, M. (2007). Child welfare and animal cruelty: a survey of child welfare workers. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 7, 83-96. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=31850094&site=ehost-live

Nierenberg, D. (2003). Factory farming in the developing world. World Watch, 16, 10. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9604668&site=ehost-live

Oleson, J., & Henry, B. (2009). Relations among need for power, affect and attitudes toward animal cruelty. Anthrozoos, 22, 255-265. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=44723838&site=ehost-live

Olukole, T., & Gbdebo, O. (2008). Patterns of visits and impacts of zoo animals on visitors. Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism & Hospitality Research, 19, 237-249. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=36666557&site=ehost-live

Ormerod, E. (2005). Companion animals. Working with Older People: Community Care Policy & Practice, 9, 23-27. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text database. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=18236618&site=ehost-live

Peterson, L. (1999). How puppy love is therapeutic: The miracle of Murphy. Biography, 3, 44. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=2234482&site=ehost-live

Phillips, C., & McCulloch, S. (2005). Student attitudes on animal sentience and use of animals in society. Journal of Biological Education, 40, 17-24. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=19398956&site=ehost-live

Pocock, C. (2006). Turtle riding on the Great Barrier Reef. Society & Animals, 14, 129-146. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=20561601&site=ehost-live

Poresky, R., Hendrix, C., Mosier, J., & Samuelson, M. (1988). Children's pets and adults' self-concepts. Journal of Psychology, 122, 463. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=5370333&site=ehost-live

Powell, R., & Ham, S. (2008). Can ecotourism interpretation really lead to pro-conservation knowledge, attitudes and behaviour? Evidence from the Galapagos Islands. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16, 467-489. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=34230575&site=ehost-live

Praded, J. (2002). Reinventing the zoo. E—The Environmental Magazine, 13, 24. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=6216935&site=ehost-live

Reaser, J., Clark Jr., E., & Meyers, N. (2008). All creatures great and minute: A public policy primer for companion animal zoonoses. Zoonoses & Public Health, 55, 385-401. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=34137663&site=ehost-live

Rhodes, R. (2004). Audubon: America's rare bird. Smithsonian, 35, 72-80. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=15140623&site=ehost-live

Ryan, C., & Saward, J. (2004). The zoo as ecotourism attraction—visitor reactions, perceptions and management implications: The case of Hamilton Zoo, New Zealand. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 12, 245-266. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=13913321&site=ehost-live

Sayre, L. (2009). The hidden link between factory farms and human illness. Mother Earth News, 76-83. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=36237132&site=ehost-live

Scanes, C. G, & Toukhatsi, S. R. (Eds.). (2018). Animals and human society. Academic Press.

Sheppard, L. (2005). Fact vs. fiction in animal welfare debate. National Hog Farmer, 50, 22-23. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=18382353&site=ehost-live

Swift, W., & Siteman, F. (1997). The healing touch. Animals, 130, 16. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9704075628&site=ehost-live

The human-animal bond throughout time. The College of Veterinary Medicine at Michigan State University. (2018, December 7). Retrieved June 20, 2023, from https://cvm.msu.edu/news/perspectives-magazine/perspectives-fall-2018/the-human-animal-bond-throughout-time

Thompson, P. (2001). Animal welfare and livestock production in a postindustrial milieu. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 4, 191. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=6545396&site=ehost-live

Tuomivaara, S. (2005). The construction of the meaning of animal in early sociological theory: Case of Edvard Westermarck. Conference Papers—American Sociological Association, 1-4. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=18616385&site=ehost-live

Tuttle, S., & Samuels, A. (2007). Cruel and unusual. Newsweek, 150, 38. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=25884133&site=ehost-live

Valeri, R. (2006). Tails of laughter: A pilot study examining the relationship between companion animal guardianship (pet ownership) and laughter. Society & Animals, 14, 275-293. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=22022216&site=ehost-live

Veissier, I., & Forkman, B. (2008). The nature of animal welfare science. Annual Review of Biomedical Sciences, 10, T15-T26. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=36116140&site=ehost-live

Ward, K., Stedman, R., Luloff, A., Shortle, J., & Finley, J. (2008). Categorizing deer hunters by typologies useful to game managers: A latent-class model. Society & Natural Resources, 21, 215-229. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=29984126&site=ehost-live

What's the mission? (1997). Environment, 39, 22. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9710180762&site=ehost-live

Woodward, L., & Bauer, A. (2007). People and their pets: A relational perspective on interpersonal complementarity and attachment in companion animal owners. Society & Animals, 15, 169-189. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=25425582&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Alagappan, M., & Schaffner, J. (2009). Animal law committee: Leading the pack in the emerging field of animal law. Brief, 38, 8-9. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=36791908&site=ehost-live

Brainard, J. (2008). New front in battle over studies of animals. Chronicle of Higher Education, 54, A1-A10. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=32993516&site=ehost-live

Cupp Jr., R. (2009). Moving beyond animal rights: A legal/contractualist critique. San Diego Law Review, 46, 27-84. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=39771223&site=ehost-live

Deemer, D. R., & Lobao, L. M. (2011). Public concern with farm-animal welfare: Religion, politics, and human disadvantage in the food sector. Rural Sociology, 76, 167–196. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=66592638&site=ehost-live

Franklin, A. (2007). Human-nonhuman animal relationships in Australia: An overview of results from the first national survey and follow-up case studies 2000-2004. Society & Animals, 15, 7-27. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=24197889&site=ehost-live

Gheaus, A. (2012). The role of love in animal ethics. Hypatia, 27, 583–600. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=77437605&site=ehost-live

Plous, S. (1993). Psychological mechanisms in the human use of animals. Journal of Social Issues, 49, 11-52. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9402070239&site=ehost-live

Scanes C. G. & Toukhsati S. R. (2018). Animals and human society. Elsevier.