Aristotle and Realism

Aristotle (384-322 BC) was a philosopher who greatly influenced educational philosophical thought for centuries. His search for truth led him to research many areas including metaphysics, ethics, rhetoric, logic, natural science, psychology and language (Gutek, 2009). His views on political and educational philosophy were mostly outlined in his works, Politics and Nicomachean Ethics. Out of Aristotle's political and educational philosophy evolved one of the oldest educational philosophies in Western culture, realism.

Keywords: Aristotle; Character Development; Essentialism; Ethics; Golden Mean; Habits of Mind; Metaphysics; Realism; Syllogism; Universal Truth; Virtue

Overview

Aristotle (384-322 BC) was a philosopher who greatly influenced educational philosophical thought for centuries. His search for truth led him to research many areas including metaphysics, ethics, rhetoric, logic, natural science, psychology and language (Gutek, 2009). His father was a court physician to the royal family in the Greek colony of Stagira in Macedon. When he was 17, Aristotle became a pupil of Plato in his Athens' Academy, where he remained for 20 years. He left the Academy to tutor Alexander the Great, but eventually returned to Athens to found his own school called the Lyceum. In 335 BC, an anti-Macedonia reaction swept through Athens after the death of Alexander and Aristotle fled to Chaleis (where his mother was born) after he was indicted for impiety (Gruber, 1973). He died a year later. His views on political and educational philosophy were mostly outlined in his works, Politics and Nicomachean Ethics. Other great works include Metaphysics, On Justice, On the Sciences, Political Theory and Art of Rhetoric.

Gutek (2009) likens Aristotle to "a traditional college professor who connected his research with teaching." Aristotle would "do his research, reflect and digest his findings, then transmit his discoveries to his students in his lectures" (p. 42). Even though Aristotle was a student of Plato, Aristotle takes a different approach to the world of ideas than Plato did. For example, Plato believed that the only true reality is that within ideas. For Aristotle, reality or truth consists of matter; each piece of matter has universal and particular properties (Ozmon & Craver, 2008). To Aristotle, "the forms of things -- those universal properties of objects -- remain constant and never change but that particular components of objects do change" (p. 4). As an example of this concept, Ozmon and Craver (2008) relate the concept of an acorn. They explain that an acorn has the universal property of "acornness," meaning that the form of a substance has certain universal properties or essences. The acorn may possess individual properties that are different from another acorn (i.e., perhaps the shell has been broken), but the idea of "acornness" will always be. Aristotle believes that there is design and order to the universe and there are universal properties to all that is; that things happen in an orderly fashion. As Ozmon and Craver (2008) point out, "The acorn follows its destiny to grow as an acorn" (p. 42). Such truths are tested by use of syllogism, the logical systematic form of ordering statements to prove their truths.

Human Nature

Aristotle believed that human nature involves two aspects — the irrational and the rational. Gruber (1973) explains that a person has no control over the irrational, as this concerns either fortune or luck. However, humans have control over that rational aspect of the soul, as the part that they control by reason is what is called moral virtue. Beauchamp (1982) defines virtue as "dispositions developed through the careful nurturing of one's capacities for living…to live well" (p. 157). Moral virtues are considered "universally praiseworthy features of human character that have been fixed by habituation" (p. 157). Those who possess moral virtue use their ability to determine what is right and then choose deliberately because it is right (Frankena, 1965). Character develops from moral virtue, as people develop habits that become well-established over time (Gruber, 1973). When people possess excellent character, they have settled into dispositions whereby "they want to act appropriately and do so without internal friction" (Urmson, 1988, p. 27). However, not all people possess excellent character. There are those who possess, instead, a strength of will. A strength of will occurs when a person wants to "act improperly, but makes himself act properly," resulting in a good action. Weakness of will occurs when "a person wants to act improperly, tries to make himself act properly, and fails." Badness of character occurs when a person wants "to act improperly, who thinks it is an excellent idea to do so, and does so without internal friction" (p. 32).

Politics & Education

According to Aristotle, the purpose of humans is to think; if they refuse to think through their free will, then humans "go against the design of the universe and the reason for [their] creations." To Aristotle, when humans go against their purpose, "they suffer the consequences of erroneous ideas, poor health, and an unhappy life" (Ozmon & Craver, 2008, p. 42). Only through knowledge can they really understand their true destiny. Aristotle describes three types of knowledge:

• Theoretical knowledge, which is the highest form of knowledge in that its end in truth;
• Practical knowledge, which guides us in our political and social affairs, advising us about moral and ethical action; and,
• Productive knowledge, which shows us how to make things (p. 44).

Endemic to Aristotle's aims of a liberal education is the idea that all education is under public control; education is universal and compulsory. The polity supports the goals of education, as outlined by Aristotle in the Politics (Taylor, 1955). These goals include: "producing people as will issue in acts tending to promote the happiness of the state; and, preparing the soul for the right enjoyment of leisure which becomes possible when practical needs have been satisfied" (Burnet, 1973, p. 1). Ozmon and Craver (2008) state that "a reciprocal relationship always exists between the properly educated person and the properly educated citizen" . To Aristotle, the major function of the state is to educate its citizens in the development of right habits. These right habits are thinking that becomes second nature (Gruber, 1973). Citizens are exposed to a liberal education, an education that tends toward making its recipient "a free man and not a slave in body or soul" (Taylor, 1955, p. 107). The aims of educating also include promoting bodily health, developing character and enhancing the intellect with those subjects that exhibit useful knowledge as is indispensible to them (Burnet, 1973). This general education does not include a technical or professional training, as all that is taught should contribute to "the formation of taste and character, serving to elevate and refine the mind" (Taylor, 1955, p. 108).

Further Insights

Views on Education

Education provides a balance of the physical, the intellectual and character (Gruber, 1973). Children are taught useful things that are essential to their role in the state. By educating citizens in reading and writing, other subjects are opened up to them (Burnet, 1973). Educating citizens in bodily culture makes the body "strong and hardy, but also develops moral qualities of grace and courage" (Gruber, 1973, p. 108). Children can also gain an appreciation of bodily beauty (Burnet, 1973).

Teaching art and music has direct influence on character development. Aristotle explains his stance on developing character in his seminal work called Nicomachean Ethics. Ethics is considered to contain "a systematic account of the principles by which …[citizens'] conduct should be regulated" (Russell, 1945, p. 172). The polity is responsible for educating citizens to become good persons by formulating good habits. Conduct begins with the soul, which is divided into two parts, the intellectual virtues and the moral virtues. All virtues "are means to an end, mainly happiness…an activity of the soul" (p. 17). Intellectual virtues result from teaching and moral virtues results from habit. Russell (1945) explains the idea that every virtue is a mean between two extremes. Aristotle provides the example of courage, a virtue that is at the mean of the continuum, with cowardice on one side of the continuum and rashness on the other.

Education leads people to develop habits that move them to good character. Students must submit to all suggestions from the teacher, suggestions that lead to the development of moral and intellectual character. The teacher (or the Master, as Aristotle calls him) must lead a disciplined life himself; through advancing this development, the teacher learns even more to enhance his own happiness. To Aristotle, happiness comes only from a well-balanced productive life. Gruber (1973) relates that the teacher directs "the unreflective energy of the young child so that the constructive powers are developed and the destructive are negated" (p. 16). Urmson (1988) states that children become "truthful, generous, fair, and the like by being told how to behave well and [are] encouraged to do so" (p. 26). By regulating the passions, habituation occurs. Teachers use their own reason to determine the method of training the youth, keeping in mind the balance of the intellect, the physical and character. As Urmson (1988) suggests, "With practice and repetition it becomes easier and easier [for children] to follow their counsel" to the point where they "come to enjoy doing things the right way, to want to do things the right way, and to be disturbed by doing thinks wrongly" (p. 26). Reason is the end result of education and teaches students to avoid excess and follow the Golden Mean (Gruber, 1973).

The Golden Mean "illustrates the notion of the soul as an entity to be kept in balance" (Ozmon & Craver, 2008, p. 42). A good education leads to the Golden Mean and promotes "the harmony and balance of soul and body" (p. 43). According to Aristotle, there are practical rules for attaining the Golden Mean. People can achieve the mean by "keeping away from the extreme which is the more contrary to the mean, and by watching the direction in which they are most easily carried by their own natural tendencies" (Burnet, 1973, p. 20).

Aristotle clearly defines the path to happiness through intellectual, physical and character development. He outlines the care of infants; that they should receive milk and space to walk. They should also be exposed to the cold, as the cold is "serviceable to health and preparation for military service" (Burnet, 1973, p. 102). Early youth should be read stories that illustrate good character; they should not be exposed to indecent behaviors or foul language while during this formative stage. Other stages of education include that from the seventh year to puberty and from puberty to the 21st year. Aristotle states that any neglect by the state to educate their young is injurious to the state itself (Burnet, 1973). Education should be offered to every member of the state rather than just to the elite, as "public training is wanted in all things that are of public interest" (Burnet, 1973, p. 106).

Realism & Essentialism

Out of Aristotle's political and educational philosophy evolved one of the oldest educational philosophies in Western culture, realism. The major tenet of realism is the role of matter, that there are "actual sticks, stones and trees of the universe exist whether or not there is a human mind to perceive them" (Ozmon & Craver, 2008, p. 40). According to Aristotle, ideas such as "the idea of a God or the idea of a tree, can exist without matter, but [that] no matter can exist without form" (p. 40). Realism maintains "that essential ideas and facts can best be learned only by a study of basic facts for the purpose of survival and the advancement of technology and science" (p. 55). Contemporary realist educators are called essentialists and place "a great emphasis on the practical side of education…[as well as] education for moral and character development." Essentialists advocate the Aristotelian approach that maintains "a proper understanding of the world…[through] an emphasis on critical reason aided by observation and experimentation" (p. 59).

Essentialism is a conservative educational philosophy that garners it roots from realism, as well as idealism. The tenets of essentialism can be directly traced to Aristotle's ordering of essential knowledge for the citizens of Athens. There are specific characteristics of essentialism, that:

• The first task is to teach basic knowledge…or basic tools that prepare students to function as members of a civilized society.
• Learning is hard work and requires discipline…and students need to focus their attention on the task at hand.
• The teacher is the locus of the classroom…as the teacher knows what the students need to know and is well acquainted with the logical order of the subject matter and the way it should be presented. (Knight, 1998, p. 117)

In modern education, there are certain elements that promote the nature of realism and essentialism:

Character Education: The legacy of character education dates directly to Aristotle. He promoted the concept that children should be taught to behave virtuously (Noddings, 1995).

Competency-based Testing: Competency-based testing is an important aspect of the essentialist line of thought. The educational philosophy promotes a dependence on factual data to determine who has learned what knowledge. Competency testing has been "directed toward finding some way to gauge teacher effectiveness and students performance more efficiently, and many states already require students to pass competency tests before graduation" (Ozmon & Craver, 2008, p. 70). The No Child Left Behind Act (2001) requires that both student and teacher knowledge bases be measured for competency.

Great Books: The study of Great Books, or books that contain knowledge that has been passed down "through the ages," is a curriculum that is organized around works of literature and philosophy that "still present fundamental knowledge about individual and social existence, human institutions, intellectual and moral endeavors and the natural order" (Ozmon & Craver, 2008, p. 57).

Paideia Proposal: The Paideia Proposal is a curriculum design developed by Mortimer Adler that promotes the teaching of problem solving skills and core subjects that places a strong emphasis on ideas found in philosophy, literature and art. The Paideia group advanced two basic recommendations, "that schooling be a one-track system; and, that it be "general, non-specialized and nonvocational" (Ozmon & Craver, 2008, p. 57).

Role of the teacher: The role of the essentialist teacher is "to present material in a systematic and organized way, [as students] use clearly defined criteria in making judgments about art, economimcs, politics and science" (Ozmon & Craver, 2008, p. 66). Teachers teach what is essential for students to become productive citizens. Essentialist teachers consider whether particular activities are essential to the basic understanding of knowledge. They plan "the type of material [to be] presented; how it is organized; whether it suits the psychological makeup of the child; whether the delivery system is suitable; and whether or not it achieves the desired results" (p. 67).

Syllogism: Aristotle is concerned with truth; in order to test the truth of statements, he developed what is called a syllogism. The thought behind a syllogism is that people will "think more accurately by ordering statements about reality in a logical systematic form that correspond to the facts of the situation under study" (Ozmon and Craver, 2008, p. 44). The seminal syllogism that illustrates this concept is:

Viewpoints

Realist Reform Movements

A resurgence of Realist educational philosophy that was promoted during the Age of Reason and again during the Enlightenment was revived under the direction of Admiral Hyman Rickover, at the time of the launching of the Russian satellite Sputnik in 1957. Rickover advocated an educational system that supported the essentials of education, with a focus on the technical and scientific in order to keep up with the race towards political superiority by the United States. A group of educators who formed the Council for Basic Education advocated a return to the teaching of the three R's — reading, writing and arithmetic. They stated that a general cultural malaise was sweeping the United States and that educators needed to focus on the essentials of education, under the guise of realism, whose roots directly related back to Aristotle's philosophy of educating youth (Ozmon & Craver, 2008).

Reformists Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler supported the study of universal truths that are inherent in the Great Books, or texts that passed on "the fundamental knowledge about individual and social existence, human institutions, intellectual and moral endeavors, and the nature order." Accordingly, Adler developed the The Paideia Proposal in 1982, a curriculum with a strong emphasis on truths found in philosophy, literature and art. He considered that there was a body of knowledge that "all students should encounter…and can best encounter through the Socratic methods of questions and answers" (Ozmon & Craver, 2008, p. 57).

Criticism

Opponents of the realist movement of education state that realism (or essentialism) promotes "an elitist conception of education whereby only intelligent students are able to master the material with any real depth." However, Adler's Paideia Problems and Possibilities, his sequel to The Paideia Proposal, states that "his approach to learning was designed for all students, not just the college bound" (Ozmon & Craver, 2008, p. 57).

Other critics of a Realist educational system argue that its exclusion of a multicultural understanding, no promotion of creativity, and a lack of focus on human relationships narrows education. Critics comment that realism focuses unduly on the facts and a promotion of ideas rather than on application, that there is "too much precision and order…that leads to mechanical approaches to education" (Ozmon & Craver, 2008, p. 60). The realist system has also been criticized for its support of competency, accountability, and performance-based teaching methods that "can be measured in some form" (p. 61). However, essentialists believe that there is a strong need to "teach students the kinds of things that members of society need to know in order to survive" and that these things need to be measured in order to assure that what should be taught and learned are actually being comprehended (p. 65).

Terms & Concepts

Ethics: Gruber (1973) defines ethics as "the study concerned with judgments of approval or disapproval, rightness or wrongness, goodness or badness, and virtue or vice" (p. 249).

Golden Mean: To Aristotle, the Golden Mean is considered to be the proper perspective, or a path between two extremes (Ozmon and Craver, 2008). He believed that the person who follows "a true purpose leads a rational life of moderation, avoiding extremes" (p. 42). A thinking person looks for the mean to develop a life of moderation.

Habits of the Mind: Habits of the mind are aspects of conditioning oneself to act accordingly "to certain kinds of conduct and certain kinds of outcomes with certain feelings" (Robinson, 1995, p. 58). Habits model what could be called second nature. By developing habits of the mind rather than rules of conduct, teachers are more concerned with "the kind of person one is rather than with every single act a person performs" (Robinson, 1995, p. 64).

Metaphysics: Metaphysics is the study of the nature of ultimate reality, considering the question of what is genuinely real (Gutek, 2009).

Universal Truth: Universal truth is truth that is absolute and is not dependent on different cultures (Gutek, 2009).

Virtue: A virtue is "a disposition that is developed through the careful nurturing of one's capacities for living" (Beauchamp, 1982, p. 157).

Bibliography

Beauchamp, T. (1982). Philosophical ethics. New York: McGraw Hill.

Burnet, J. (1973). Aristotle on education: Extracts from the Ethics and Politics. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge UP.

Damian, R., & Robins, R. W. (2013). Aristotle's virtue or Dante's deadliest sin? The influence of authentic and hubristic pride on creative achievement. Learning & Individual Differences, 26156-160. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89740507&site=ehost-live

Frankena, W. (1965). Toward a philosophy of moral education. In Carter, H. Intellectual Foundations of American education. (pp. 181-192). New York: Pitman Press.

Gruber, F. (1973). Historical and contemporary philosophies of education. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell.

Gutek, G. (2009). New perspectives on philosophy and education. Columbus, OH: Pearson.

Knight, G. (1998). Issues and alternatives in educational philosophy. Berrian Springs, MI: Andrews UP.

Lewis, P. (2012). In defence of Aristotle on character: Toward a synthesis of recent psychology, neuroscience and the thought of Michael Polanyi. Journal of Moral Education, 41, 155-170. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=75063038&site=ehost-live

Noddings, N. (1995). Philosophy of education. New York: Harper Collins.

Ozmon, H., & Craver, S. (2008). Philosophical foundations of education (8th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Robinson, T. (1995). Aristotle in outline. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett.

Russell, B. (1945). A history of Western philosophy. Hew York: Simon & Shuster.

Taylor, A. (1955). Aristotle. New York: Dover Press.

Urmson, B. (1988). Aristotle's ethics. New York: Basil Blackwell.

Walker, P. (2012). Teaching argument with Aristotle's common topics. Kentucky English Bulletin, 61, 14-18. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=77464934&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Adler, M. (1997). Aristotle for everybody. New York: Touchstone.

Adler, M. (1984). The Paideia Program: An educational syllabus. New York: Macmillan.

Aristotle. (1975). The Nicomachean ethics of Aristotle (D. Ross, Trans.). New York: Oxford UP.

Aristotle. (1899). Politics (B. Jowett, Trans.). New York: Colonial Press.

Augusto, L. (2006). A little idealism is idealism enough: A study on idealism in Aristotle's epistemology. Idealist Studies, 36, 61-73.

Birondo, N. (2006). Moral realism without values. Journal of Philosophical Research, 31, 1-102.

Broadie, S. (1991). Ethics with Aristotle. New York: Oxford University Press.

Link, S. (2008). Essentialism and perennialism. Essentialism and perennialism, 1-11. Retrieved June 8, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Research Starters Education: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e0h&AN=31962597&site=ehost-live

Null, J. (2007, April). William C. Bagley and the founding of essentialism. Teachers College Record, 109, 1013-1055.

Peterson, J. (2000). Conceptualism and truth. Ratio, 13, 234. Retrieved June 9, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=10454065&site=ehost-live

Putnam, R. (2008). Why not moral realism? International Journal of Philosophical Studies, 16, 17-29. Retrieved June 8, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=28768063&site=ehost-live

Reed, R., & Johnson, T. (2000). Philosophical documents in education, 2nd ed. New York: Longman.

Reeve, C.D.C. (1998). Aristotelian education. In Rorty, A. Philosophies on education: historical perspectives. (pp. 51-65). New York: Routledge.

Reeve, C.D.C. (1992). Practices of reason: Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics. New York: Oxford UP.

Schollmeier, P. (1998). Aristotle and Aristotelians. Social Theory and Practice, 24, 133-151. Retrieved June 9, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=783518&site=ehost-live

Spangler, M. (1994). Aristotle on teaching. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

Shtulman, A. (2008). The relation between essentialist beliefs and evolutionary reasoning. Cognitive Science, 32, 1049-1062.

Tabensky, P. (2007). Realistic idealism: An Aristotelian alternative to Machiavellian international relations. Theoria: A Journal of Social and Political Theory, , 97-111. Retrieved June 8, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=26198891&site=ehost-live

Verbeke, G. (1990). Moral education in Aristotle. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press.