Axum

Related civilization: Ethiopia.

Also known as: Aksum.

Date: 1-700 c.e.

Locale: Tigray province, northern Ethiopia

History

Axum (AHK-sewm), or Aksum, rose during the first century c.e. as the Roman Empire stimulated an extensive network of international trade to satisfy its rampant consumerism. Ethiopian traditions link Axum to the wealthy Queen of Sheba, who visited King Solomon of Israel and bore him a son named Menelik I. According to legend, Menelik left Israel, taking with him the Ark of the Covenant, and became Axum’s first emperor. However, archaeologists find no evidence of urban life at Axum before the first century. Developments from 100 to 300 c.e. can be gleaned mainly from coin and monument inscriptions and from references to trade in Greco-Roman documents. However, it is evident that Axum gained control over much of Ethiopia by establishing an absolute monarchy supported by a well-organized army.

By the third century under King Ezana (r. c. 330-c. 350 c.e.), Axum succeeded in destroying the kingdom of Meroe, a powerful iron-producing rival that had been the center of Kushitic civilization. Consequently, Axum eliminated its rival for the position of main supplier of African goods to the Roman world. In 330 c.e., Ezana declared Axum to be a Christian kingdom. The decision was influenced by the Byzantine missionary Saint Frumentius, who became first bishop of the Abyssinian Church. However, the decision to facilitate trade relations with Byzantine Egypt was also a major factor. Ezana’s conversion, conquests, and building program caused him to be regarded as the Constantine of Ethiopia. He was also the first king anywhere to use the cross on the coinage of the realm.

During the sixth century, King Kaleb led his forces into south Arabia, extending Axumite control to Yemen. Axum became a place of refuge for early believers of Islam, offering refuge for persecuted followers such as Muḥammad’s wife. This was a favor that the followers of Islam remembered. With the success of Islam and the establishment of a new trading center at Baghdad by the Abbāsids (750 c.e.), Axum’s position in world trade had waned. However, Ethiopia continued to exist as a Christian kingdom, immune to attempts at conversion. Legends about a wealthy and powerful Christian kingdom in Africa persisted during the European Middle Ages (the myth of “Prester” John) and eventually served as a subsidiary stimulus for Portuguese exploration of Africa in the fifteenth century. Axum still exists as a city, important for its traditional role as the birthplace of Ethiopian religion, culture, and political unity.

Government

Axum was an absolute monarchy ruled by a “king of kings” whose main function was to ensure the smooth operation of a tribute system. The king appointed local rulers who could be counted on to collect taxes from both towns and rural areas in an empire numbering approximately 500,000 people. The central bureaucracy appears to have been large, using ambassadors, messengers, interpreters, numerous clerks, and tax officials. In the event of child-kings, women could act as regents.

War and weapons

Axum’s army was organized into regiments, all with unique names. Soldiers carried round shields and fought with two types of spears, one having a short and the other a long blade. The king served as war leader. Axum also had a navy to protect merchant shipping from piracy. Warfare was not a prevalent theme in society and was used to guarantee continued payment of tribute. There was little concern about defense as evidenced by the fact that towns were not fortified.

Trade

Axum exported ivory, skins and hides, woven fabrics, brass, copper, glass crystal, gold, frankincense, and myrrh (a resin widely used in ancient medicines and burials). It imported wine, olive oil, metal goods, and textiles. Fine pottery was produced for the wealthy classes and may also have been exported. Axumite coins were widely used in trade and have been found as far away as India and China.

Language and literature

The language of Axum was Geՙez (Ethiopic), a Semitic language emanating from south Arabia that was written in cursive form. Geՙez is still used in traditional Ethiopian church ritual. Greek was the official language and was used on inscriptions and coins. Axum is thought to have had a rich literature. Unfortunately, none of it has survived the ravages of time.

Social structure

Very little information exists on stratification, although Axum was known to have skilled craftspeople and a large wealthy class of merchants. Although allusions to slaves, particularly in the export trade, exist, slavery does not appear to have been a major institution in society.

Technology and agriculture

South Arabian hydraulic engineering techniques were used to ensure a reliable water supply. An excellent irrigation system made Axum self-sufficient in food. The rich lands to the south were particularly important in providing staple crops such as wheat and barley. Axum had one of the most advanced coinage systems in the ancient world. It was trimetallic, with gold inlay on both bronze and silver coins.

Religion

Until the coming of Christianity, Axum worshiped polytheistic south Arabian gods associated with the Sun, Moon, and stars. The most important symbols were the disk and the crescent. Ezana’s conversion to Monophysite Christianity around 333 c.e. made Axum the first official Christian state in the world. The Abyssinian Church, formed by the Axum Christians, is still in existence. Its most important center is the Cathedral of Mary of Zion in Axum, which claims to have the original Ark of the Covenant hidden in its recesses, under guard by Coptic monks.

Architecture and burial

The most unusual structures are thin, solid stone pillars (stelae), the largest of which (100 feet, or 30 meters) surpasses even the Egyptian obelisks as the largest in the world. Stelae, usually carved in the form of a multistoried house from a single stone, were used to mark the graves of kings. Elaborate catacombs were also built in great number. Although the major catacombs were looted in early times, many still await excavation. Numerous other stone structures formed palaces and houses. They had no mortar and were held together by mud.

Current views

Archaeological excavation first began in 1906, but the main work, undertaken in the 1970’s by the British Institute in East Africa, revealed a major civilization of the ancient and early medieval world. Scholars still debate whether Axum was a south Arabian transplant on African soil, a local African phenomenon, an area linked in unknown ways to Egypt and the Sudan, or a synthetic mingling of many elements.

Bibliography

Burstein, Stanley M., ed. Ancient African Civilizations: Kush and Axum. Princeton, N.J.: Markus Wiener, 1998.

Kobishchanov, Yuri M. Axum. Translated by L. Kapitanoff. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1979.

Munro-Hay, Stuart. Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press, 1991.

Phillipson, David W. Ancient Ethiopia: Aksum, Its Antecedents and Successors. London: British Museum Press, 1998.