Baconian method
The Baconian method, developed by British philosopher Sir Francis Bacon in the early 17th century, represents a foundational approach to scientific inquiry that emphasizes systematic observation and experimentation. Bacon sought to advance knowledge beyond the traditional Aristotelian framework, which he believed relied too heavily on deductive reasoning from general principles. Instead, he advocated for a method that involved careful, intentional observations followed by inductive reasoning, leading to generalizations based on repeated experimentation.
In his seminal work, *Novum Organum*, Bacon outlined a structured process for determining truth in nature. This method consists of three steps: first, describing facts; second, classifying these facts based on their relevance to the characteristics under investigation; and finally, deriving conclusions about the potential influences and correlations observed. Bacon’s methodology challenges the notion of absolute truth and acknowledges human fallibility, emphasizing the importance of empirical validation. His contributions laid the groundwork for the modern scientific method, influencing how scientific inquiry is conducted today. Bacon is often regarded as the father of this method, underscoring the lasting impact of his ideas on contemporary science.
On this Page
Subject Terms
Baconian method
The Baconian method refers to the scientific method of investigation developed by British philosopher Sir Francis Bacon who lived from 1561 to 1628. Bacon’s goal was to push the pursuit of knowledge beyond the Greek philosophy of Aristotle, who had influenced science and philosophy from the fourth century BCE through the Middle Ages. Although Bacon adopted Aristotle’s inductive method, he argued that reasoning from simply observing nature, as Aristotle did, was not an adequate way to arrive at knowledge. Instead, he proposed that observations must be made intentionally, systematically, and repeatedly.
Bacon’s 1620 book Novum Organum (New Method) described a way of determining truth in nature based on inductive experimentation. His work was part of the development of and successive advancements in the scientific method. Modern science is still based in part on Bacon’s ideas. He is commonly referred to as the father of the scientific method.
Background
Bacon was born on January 22, 1561, to Sir Nicholas Bacon, a lawyer and Lord Keeper of the Great Seal under Queen Elizabeth, and Anne, a scholar and a strict Puritan. He was educated at Cambridge and Gray’s Inn. He became an effective lawyer and a somewhat nonconsequential stateman.
From an early age, Bacon was dissatisfied with the academic world’s primary focus on Aristotle. Aristotle began with four foundational tenets: (a) knowledge must be attributed to what is real; (b) the world experienced through the senses is real; (c) knowledge is fixed and unchanging; and (d) the world experience through the sense is not fixed and unchanging. To overcome the contradiction in these tenets, Aristotle argued that knowledge exists outside of what is fixed and unchanging. He believed that reasoning, based on one’s observation of nature, led to knowledge. He followed an inductive method. For example, if one observes that all the birds they find in nature have wings, one can then reason that all blackbirds have wings.
Overview
Bacon planned to write a six-part series titled Magna Instauratio (Great Instauration) but only finished the first two books. In Part I, De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum (The Dignity and Advancement of Learning), published in 1605, Bacon laid out the obstacles to advancing science by developing his doctrine of the four “idols.” First, he argued that science must overcome the Idols of the Tribe, which were reflected in the natural weaknesses inherit in human nature. The weaknesses included humans’ tendency toward wishful thinking and the fallibility of the senses. He argued humans tend to believe what they want to be true and may rely on preconceived notions and jump to conclusions.
Unlike the Idols of the Tribe (common to all), the Idols of the Cave varied between people. These idols are humans’ presumptions and prejudices, which are different based on such factors as culture, age, religion, upbringing, etc. The Idols of the Marketplace are transferred from social interaction and include both naming things that don’t exist (such as unicorns and fairies) and experiencing the same things in different ways (such as color and taste). The Idols of the Theatre were those previous, nonempirical philosophies that lacked an empirical basis or were built on superstitions.
With the groundwork laid for why scientific discovery needed a new framework, Bacon published Part II of Magna Instauratio, titled Novum Organum in 1620—with a nod to Aristotle’s major collection of work Organum (Method). Bacon’s main problem with Aristotle was Aristotle attempted to arrive first at a general axiom (a statement regarded to be true). He reasoned from the top–down. For example, according to Aristotle, if one observes that birds have wings, then one could likely reason the corollary truth (one that branches from a larger truth) that all blackbirds have wings. However, Bacon argued that if just one bird doesn’t have wings, the axiom is proven false, and so are all corollaries. Although it may be true that all blackbirds have wings, the lack of the general axiom eliminates its basis for truth.
Instead, Bacon argued that one should proceed up the ladder of generalization, moving from one axiom to another so that the most general axiom is reached last. In other words, Bacon moved bottom–up—what he called the “ladder of intellect.” In addition, each axiom must be verified not only through observation but also through deliberate experimentation. Bacon understood that his method was laborious and would not lead to an absolute truth. Yet, in the end, the structure of inquiry remained intact, even if a single axiom is proved wrong. Ultimately, for Bacon, the pursuit of knowledge up the ladder was not a means to an end but an end in itself. Experimentation was at the heart of that pursuit.
Bacon rejected Aristotle’s belief that experimentation interfered with nature. Instead, he insisted that experimentation allowed the experimenters to focus on the facts, as nature is full of facts. The experiments must be intentional, systematic, and repeatable. In this way, humans could attempt to overcome the obstacles he outlined in De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum.
Bacon’s method included three main steps. Step one is to describe the facts. Step two is to tabulate or classify those facts as (a) having the characteristics under investigation, (b) not having the characteristics, or (c) having varying degrees of having or not having the characteristics under investigation. The last step is to determine the final result of what factors are and are not supported.
Despite his methodology, Bacon understood that humans are fallible and prone to misconceptions and preconceptions. Thus, despite the attempt to strip experimentation from human influence, he knew that all experiments involved some sort of human interpretation. This idea was later absent from natural philosophy and only reintroduced by German philosopher Immanuel Kant in the eighteenth century.
Bibliography
“The ‘Experimental Philosophy.’” University of British Columbia, phas.ubc.ca/~stamp/TEACHING/PHYS340/NOTES/FILES/Bacon‗ExperimentalPhilosophy.pdf. Accessed 7 Aug. 2023.
“Francis Bacon.” Famous Scientists, 2023, www.famousscientists.org/francis-bacon/. Accessed 7 Aug. 2023.
Gerber, Daniel. “Bacon’s Metaphysical Method.” Epistemology & Philosophy of Science, vol 58, no. 3, 2021, pp. 22–37, doi.org/10.5840/eps202158340. Accessed 7 Aug. 2023.
Klein, Jürgen, and Guido Giglioni. “Francis Bacon.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 7 Dec. 2012, plato.stanford.edu/entries/francis-bacon/. Accessed 7 Aug. 2023.
Wolford, Kathryn. “Francis Bacon and the Scientific Revolution.” Khan Academy, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/baroque-art1/beginners-guide-baroque1/a/francis-bacon-and-the-scientific-revolution. Accessed 7 Aug. 2023.