Baruch Spinoza

Dutch philosopher

• Born: November 24, 1632
• Birthplace: Amsterdam, United Provinces (now the Netherlands)
• Died: February 21, 1677
• Place of death: The Hague, United Provinces (now in the Netherlands)

The influence of Spinoza, a major figure among seventeenth century philosophers, has reached into the scholarship of the twenty-first century. He helped to lay the groundwork for developments in letters and contributed to the emergence of political and religious tolerance.

Early Life

Baruch Spinoza (BAHR-ewk spih-NOH-zah) was born in Amsterdam. His parents, Michael and Hanna Deborah, were Spanish-Portuguese Jews who had emigrated to Holland to escape religious persecution. This persecution was relatively recent in origin. Jews living in Spain during the late Middle Ages had experienced a period of tolerance under the Moors, who were Islamic. The return of Christian rule utterly reversed this trend. Subject to all manner of plunder and murder during the Spanish Inquisition , many Jews decided to convert to Christianity.

A large number of these converts, however, continued to practice Judaism in private. That led to a new round of persecution and finally to the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492. Some converted Jews (or Marranos, as they were called) sought refuge in Portugal. Over time, persecution arose there as well. Holland became a logical next step for Jews who desired the freedom to practice their religion and pursue fruitful commerce. Spinoza’s parents are believed to have been Marranos who had sought refuge in Jodenburt, the Jewish quarter of Amsterdam. There they could practice Judaism openly, enjoying the fruits of religious tolerance unmatched in all Christendom. They were also free to pursue a broad range of commercial opportunities.

This relatively self-contained community first nurtured Spinoza, providing him with material comforts and an extensive education in Jewish religion and philosophy. Ultimately, however, Spinoza was cast out. How and why that came about is pivotal to an understanding of Spinoza’s early life as well as to his subsequent career.

Spinoza’s father was in the import-export business and is believed to have been highly successful. Spinoza helped in the family business but at some point became far more interested in his studies than he was in commerce. He wished, moreover, to broaden his studies beyond the usual fare, exploring the less orthodox canons within Jewish thought and acquainting himself with non-Jewish sources of learning. This, in itself, was not unusual. Many members of the Jewish community had opened themselves to the world around them. As a result, Spinoza’s father was agreeable, arranging for Spinoza to study Latin outside the Jodenburt in the home of Francis Van den Ende, a freethinker and something of a political radical.

The study of Latin enabled Spinoza to explore the rationalist philosophy of René Descartes . Though Descartes did not openly disparage traditional religion, his philosophy was an attempt to understand the world through reason rather than faith. Spinoza also launched into what was, for a Jew, even more controversial, a study of the New Testament.

The result of these unorthodox studies was that Spinoza moved irretrievably beyond the dominant beliefs of the community into which he had been born, rejecting its commercialism as well as the exclusiveness of the Jewish faith. Indeed, it appeared to some that he was rejecting religion altogether. As Spinoza’s beliefs became known, the leaders of the Jodenburt responded first by attempting to bribe Spinoza with a generous monetary allowance in return for his outward compliance with orthodox beliefs. Spinoza refused this offer. Shortly thereafter, he was tried and found guilty of what amounted to a charge of heresy. In 1656, Spinoza was excommunicated.

Why Spinoza’s accusers acted is not as self-evident as it might seem. The Jewish community in Amsterdam permitted a fair amount of diversity, and Spinoza was outwardly quiet about his dissenting opinions in theological matters. He was not, so far as is known, a gadfly in the image of Socrates. These circumstances have led some scholars to explain Spinoza’s excommunication as a response by Jewish leaders to their fear of renewed persecution by Christians flowing either from Spinoza’s apparent atheism or from his association with Dutch political radicals. The fact that Spinoza had already begun to divorce himself from the Jewish community (he was no longer living in the Jodenburt at the time of his excommunication) supports such an interpretation. Another theory is that Spinoza was thought dangerous because of his opposition to wealth and privilege within the Jewish community. Whatever the motivation, Spinoza was excommunicated at the age of twenty-four. Shortly afterward, he was forced by Dutch authorities to leave Amsterdam’s city boundaries—this, too, at the urging of the Jewish leaders.

Life’s Work

Though Spinoza’s excommunication was of great symbolic importance, it did little to change the way he actually conducted his life. Spinoza left behind his Hebrew name, Baruch, substituting for it the Latin equivalent, Benedict (both mean “blessed”). Yet he did not become a Christian. Nor did he marry. He lived quietly, first in Rhijnsburg, later in Voorburg, accumulating only so much money as he needed to pay his bills. A good neighbor and well loved by friends, he devoted the rest of his life to his studies.

What income Spinoza did have may have come from his knowledge of optics and skills as a lens grinder. That, at least, has become part of the Spinoza legend. There is no evidence, however, that Spinoza actually earned a living in this way. It has, therefore, been hypothesized that to sustain himself Spinoza accepted moderate amounts of money from friends, though here, too, the evidence allows for little more than an educated guess. What is known is that Spinoza repeatedly rejected large gifts from wealthy friends and also that he refused a professor’s chair at the University of Heidelberg.

Two reasons have been advanced for these actions: Spinoza’s humble tastes and, most important, his devotion to writing what he thought was true, regardless of who might be offended. Such candor required thoroughgoing independence. This is not to say that Spinoza led an entirely isolated existence. He exchanged ideas with numerous intellectuals, religious reformers, and political activists until the end of his life. The outcome of this combination of lively discourse and independence of thought was a body of work that drew immediate attention from avid supporters as well as critics and that has stood the test of time.

Spinoza’s earliest work of note was his Renati Des Cartes principiorum philosophiae (1663; The Principles of Descartes’ Philosophy , 1905). Though the essay is little more than an exegesis, it demonstrates Spinoza’s profound grasp of the system he spent much time criticizing. The appeal of Descartes for Spinoza lies in Descartes’s stated goal of explaining the world through the use of reason alone, thus taking a giant step beyond medieval Scholasticism, which, at best, gave reason status nearly equal to that of revelation. Spinoza’s central criticism of Descartes was that he continued to take much on faith.

In 1670, Spinoza’s Tractatus theologico-politicus (A Theologico-Political Treatise , 1862) was published anonymously. In this work, Spinoza broke new ground, writing perhaps the most eloquent defense ever of religious freedom. The treatise includes a critical essay on the Bible that points out its rather haphazard assembly of very different works from different eras into a single text. It also distinguishes the role of reason, which is to discern truth, from that of religion, which is to foster piety. Although these points may seem innocent enough to modern readers, the treatise was greeted with a chorus of criticism from a variety of clerics, many of whom branded its author an atheist, and the Catholic Church, which banned it. Spinoza’s circle of friends and supporters, on the other hand, deeply appreciated his achievement.

The rancor with which A Theologico-Political Treatise was received may well have persuaded Spinoza that it would be neither wise nor prudent to publish again during his lifetime. Although prudence in this matter is easily understood, it is likely that wisdom also played a role in Spinoza’s decision. Throughout his life, Spinoza demonstrated a high regard for the atmosphere of tolerance in the United Provinces, which permitted the Jewish people to worship and he himself to think freely. To publish controversial works openly might risk the habits of tolerance that were just then taking root. His other major works remained unpublished until after his death in 1677, and even then remained anonymous (actually, authorship was designated by the use of Spinoza’s initials). These include his unfinished Tractatus politicus (1677; A Political Treatise , 1883), which, beginning from Hobbesian premises about human nature, ends up with a very un-Hobbesian defense of democratic principles, and Ethica (1677; Ethics , 1870), Spinoza’s most substantial and most famous work.

In Ethics, Spinoza borrows the language of Descartes (including such notions as “substance”—what might be called matter—and “extension”—what might be called form) to finish the interpretation of the world as it is known through reason. Although God plays a central role in Spinoza’s worldview, it is not the role to which one is accustomed by traditional religion. Instead, God is depersonalized and indifferent. For many readers, this translated into atheism; for others, it is a form of pantheism. Whatever one’s interpretation, the distinctiveness of Ethics lies in the direct connection of this metaphysical framework with a theory of how human beings should seek to do what is right and also achieve happiness in the absence of divine commandments. Ethical conduct and happiness flow from the proper combination of emotion (or passions) and reason, neither being completely dominant over the other.

Ethics is clearly not designed to be edifying or stylish. It is argued through what Spinoza thought to be the philosophical equivalent of geometric proofs. These, quite frankly, seem tedious at first glance. Yet, for those who were not busy condemning Spinoza’s godlessness, the book conveyed (and for many readers still conveys) breathtaking beauty and insight, giving off a special aura that is not strictly intellectual, literary, or spiritual, but that somehow partakes of all three.

In addition to his formal writing, Spinoza left behind a large body of correspondence that is indispensable to an understanding of his life and thought. These letters not only provide a running commentary on Spinoza’s philosophical works but also indicate the considerable interest his ideas inspired and the affection in which he was held by many friends. These friends mourned deeply when Spinoza died suddenly and, if reports are correct, peacefully, on February 21, 1677, at the age of forty-four.

Significance

During his lifetime, Baruch Spinoza established an underground reputation as one of the greatest philosophers of his day. Even those such as Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz who openly disparaged him could not ignore the forcefulness of his thought.

In addition to his purely intellectual achievements, Spinoza served as an inspirational figure for the circle of freethinkers with whom he was in contact. For them, Spinoza’s devotion to truth, defense of tolerance, and humility made him a rallying point in their attempts to bring about further progress. At the same time, however, in the eyes of many observers, Spinoza’s name was synonymous with atheism, which was widely held to be nothing less than diabolical.

Over time, the viewpoint of Spinoza’s supporters has easily outdistanced that of his critics. It is true that the triumph of analytic philosophy in Anglo-American universities has tended to devalue the broad synthetic enterprise in which Spinoza was engaged, and there is an archaic quality to Spinoza’s terminology. Nevertheless, it is well established that Spinoza was one of the three great rationalist philosophers (along with Descartes and Leibniz) and that he had a great influence on later philosophers, such as G. W. F. Hegel.

Spinoza’s Major Works

1663

• Renati des Cartes principia philosophiae (Principles of Descartes Philosophy, 1905)

1670

• Tractatus theologico-politicus (A Theologico-Political Treatise, 1862)

1677

• Opera posthuma

1677

• Ethica (Ethics, 1870)

1677

• Tractatus politicus (A Political Treatise, 1883)

1677

• De intellectus emendatione (On the Improvement of the Understanding, 1884)

1677

• Epistolae doctorum quorundam virorum ad B.D.S. et auctoris responsiones (Letters to Friend and Foe, 1966)

1677

• Compendium grammatices linguae hebraeae (Hebrew Grammar, 1962)

1862

• Tractatus de deo et homine eiusque felicitate (A Short Treatise on God, Man, and His Well-Being, 1963)

Bibliography

Browne, Lewis. Blessed Spinoza: A Biography of the Philosopher. New York: Macmillan, 1932. A lively, well-written account of Spinoza’s life by a professional biographer. A good introduction, but the work should be augmented by more current research.

Feuer, Lewis Samuel. Spinoza and the Rise of Liberalism. Boston: Beacon Press, 1958. Uses historical, psychological, and philosophical analysis to link Spinoza’s excommunication to his political orientation. Feuer portrays Spinoza as the first in a long line of politically radical Jewish intellectuals.

Garrett, Don, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. A collection of essays, including a general overview of Spinoza’s life and work; more in-depth examinations of his thoughts on metaphysics, knowledge, natural science, ethics, and theology; and an analysis of his biblical scholarship.

Kayser, Rudolf. Spinoza: Portrait of a Spiritual Hero. Translated by Amy Allen and Maxim Newmark. New York: Philosophical Library, 1946. As the subtitle suggests, an inspirational and highly sympathetic account of Spinoza’s life. Includes a brief introduction by Albert Einstein.

McShea, Robert J. The Political Philosophy of Spinoza. New York: Columbia University Press, 1968. Fits Spinoza into the tradition of political philosophy from Plato and Aristotle to the present, offering particularly cogent comparisons of Spinoza’s thought to that of Niccolò Machiavelli and Thomas Hobbes. Includes a lengthy bibliography.

Nadler, Steven. Spinoza: A Life. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. A comprehensive biography of Spinoza, recounting the events of his life, including his Jewish heritage and relationship to the Amsterdam Jewish community that excommunicated him. Describes the emergence of his philosophy, providing a detailed and understandable explanation of his ideas.

Smith, Steven B. Spinoza’s Book of Life: Freedom and Redemption in the “Ethics.” New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2003. An analysis of Ethics, which Smith describes as Spinoza’s celebration of human freedom and its attendant joys and responsibilities. Includes chapters on the book’s examination of God, thinking, desire, politics, love, and the authority of reason.

Spinoza, Baruch. The Ethics and Selected Letters. Edited by Seymour Feldman. Translated by Samuel Shirley. Indianapolis, Ind.: Hackett, 1982. A compact, accessible edition of Spinoza’s most extensive philosophical work, together with some of his more philosophically revealing letters.

Steinberg, Diane. On Spinoza. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002. Overview of Spinoza’s life and philosophy intended for a general audience. The introductory chapter provides a brief account of his life, followed by chapters explaining various aspects of his philosophy, including his ideas on metaphysics, mind and body, psychology, ethics, and philosophical methods.