Battle of Adwa
The Battle of Adwa, fought on March 1, 1896, near the town of Adwa in Ethiopia, marked a significant moment in African history as it concluded the First Italo-Ethiopian War. This battle saw the Ethiopian Empire, led by Emperor Menelik II, successfully defeat an invading Italian force. The Ethiopian army, numbering around 100,000, faced off against approximately 17,000 Italian troops, resulting in a decisive victory for the Ethiopians and securing their sovereignty. The outcome stunned many in Europe and America, challenging prevailing perceptions of African military capabilities. Following their defeat, Italy faced a national humiliation, leading to significant political repercussions back home.
The conflict stemmed from Italy's ambitions to establish an empire in Africa, which was part of the broader "scramble for Africa" among European powers. The Battle of Adwa is celebrated annually in Ethiopia as a symbol of national pride and resistance against colonialism, representing one of the few instances where an African nation successfully repelled a European colonization effort. The legacy of this battle continues to resonate in Ethiopia, reflecting themes of sovereignty, resilience, and historical significance in the face of colonial ambitions.
Battle of Adwa
The Battle of Adwa was fought by the Ethiopian Empire, which was then known as Abyssinia, and Italy on March 1, 1896, near Adwa, Ethiopia, as the concluding battle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War (1895–1896). The conflict saw the Ethiopian army of one hundred thousand soldiers led by Emperor Menelik II successfully repel the invading Italian force of about seventeen thousand troops, who were attempting to colonize Ethiopia. Menelik won a decisive victory in the battle, securing Ethiopia's sovereignty and rebuffing Italy's colonization efforts in the country.
Italy's humiliating loss at the Battle of Adwa made headlines worldwide. Many Europeans and Americans were astonished that an African people, whom many Westerners believed were inferior to them, had defeated a European power militarily. Italy retained its existing colonies in East Africa into the mid-twentieth century, and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini conquered Ethiopia in the years prior to World War II (1939–1945). Into the twenty-first century, Ethiopians celebrated their nation's victory at Adwa annually on March 2.
Background
The Battle of Adwa, and the larger First Italo-Ethiopian War, resulted from years of conflict between Italy and Ethiopia. The Italian government determined by the mid-1880s that it wanted to create an overseas colonial empire as the United Kingdom and France had. Beginning in the 1870s, these nations and others in Western Europe had started competing for foreign colonies as sources of international prestige, raw manufacturing materials, and, ultimately, income.
To Europeans in the late nineteenth century, Africa appeared primed for colonization. It was rich in natural resources and promised large new consumer populations for European goods. This craze for African colonies became known as the "scramble for Africa," since multiple European powers suddenly started competing fiercely to stake land claims in Africa and set up their own economic systems. The United Kingdom, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, and several other countries all entered this competition around the same time.
The completion of Egypt's Suez Canal in 1869 attracted Italy to the African colonization fray. The canal meant that the Red Sea, situated north of the Horn of Africa on the continent's northeastern coast, was now a potentially lucrative shipping route. Italy took over the city of Massawa, a strategic port on the Red Sea coast, in 1885. Italian forces expanded from there, eventually occupying regions south and west of the city. Italy established the colony of Eritrea in 1890.
Italian forces moved south into the northern Ethiopian region of Tigray soon after occupying Massawa. Ethiopia's emperor, Yohannes IV, responded fiercely to this violation of Ethiopian sovereignty. He persuaded his people in Tigray to attack the Italians if they attempted to advance farther south. Italian troops eventually did this, and they skirmished with Ethiopian forces numerous times into the late 1880s.
Yohannes was killed in a battle with African rivals in 1889. Menelik II was then crowned emperor of Ethiopia. Menelik was intelligent and a vicious fighter. He knew that Ethiopian sovereignty would be destroyed if he allowed Europeans to colonize his kingdom. Menelik therefore started preparing for war by acquiring modern military rifles and artillery guns from European traders.
Overview
Italy became one of Menelik's weapons suppliers in 1889, after Italian authorities and Menelik signed the Treaty of Wichale together. The Italian government wanted Menelik to believe Ethiopia and Italy could become partners in East Africa. Two copies of the treaty were drawn up for signing, one in Italian and the other in Amharic, the language of Ethiopia. The parties signed both treaties, but the documents were not exactly the same. The Italian version stated that Menelik would have to obtain the consent of the Italian government to negotiate deals with other nations. Menelik's version of the treaty claimed Ethiopia could choose to consult Italy on its decisions.
The treaty allowed Italy to supply Menelik with more of the modern guns he wanted. By the mid-1890s, the Ethiopian army was fully outfitted with an arsenal of advanced weaponry. Menelik eventually discovered that the Italians had deceived him. He openly blamed Italy for its trickery, but few European powers were interested in his complaints.
In 1895, Menelik finally determined that he would drive Italy out of Ethiopia before the Italians fully colonized the country. He gathered an army of one hundred thousand soldiers, all armed with European weapons, and led them into northern Ethiopia, near Eritrea. The Italians, believing their colony was in danger, pursued Menelik from late 1895 to early 1896. Italian commanders realized by February 1896 that they had stretched themselves too thin by chasing the Ethiopians.
Italian general Oreste Baratieri faced a choice. He could attack Menelik's army on an open battlefield or retreat to safety. He decided that on the night of February 29, his army of about seventeen thousand men would advance toward Menelik's camp and establish strong defensive positions. Baratieri hoped this move would persuade Menelik to retreat.
Three Italian brigades had advanced by the early morning of March 1, but the rugged terrain near the northern Ethiopian town of Adwa made communication and coordination difficult. One brigade inadvertently advanced ahead of the others, became separated, and was surprised by the Ethiopian army. Baratieri ordered his second brigade to advance and assist the first, but the Ethiopians intervened and attacked this brigade alone, too.
Menelik commanded about eighty-two thousand soldiers with swords and rifles, twenty thousand spearmen, and eight thousand cavalry against Baratieri's approximately seventeen thousand troops. Menelik engaged each Italian brigade separately, overwhelming them with sheer force of numbers. By later on March 1, Menelik's army had killed about five thousand Italian troops, while about seven thousand Ethiopians died. The Italians frantically retreated to Eritrea.
The Battle of Adwa was a sweeping victory for the Ethiopians. It secured Ethiopia's sovereignty and made the country one of the only African states to withstand European colonization to that point. Meanwhile, the battle humiliated Italy. Baratieri was removed from his military command, and Prime Minister Francesco Crispi resigned. On a larger scale, the Battle of Adwa limited Italy's colonization ambitions in East Africa, holding the country mainly to its Eritrea colony.
Newspapers around the world reported Italy's defeat by Ethiopia. This was particularly newsworthy, as it meant that an African people had been able to defend themselves against a European power. This significantly damaged Italy's credibility among its European peers. In the mid-1930s, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini avenged his country's defeat at Adwa by taking over Ethiopia and holding it as an Italian territory into 1941. In modern times, Ethiopians celebrate their ancestors' victory at the Battle of Adwa as a day of national pride.
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