Black Boys Rebellion

The Black Boys Rebellion, also known as Smith’s Rebellion or the Allegheny Uprising, was an armed conflict between a group of white settlers in Western Pennsylvania and British troops. The conflict began on March 5, 1765, when James Smith and a group of ten men intercepted and destroyed goods carried by an eighty-one horse-pack train headed toward Native American country. Amazingly, the nine-month rebellion resulted in only one wounded and no deaths.

Background

Western Pennsylvania, which at the time was the edge of the frontier, was the site of war and violence during the years leading up to the Black Boys Rebellion. The British had overcome the French in the French and Indian War (1755–1763) but had little control over ongoing Native American raids on the Scots-Irish and German settlers in the Allegheny valley. Many settlers fled the valley during the height of the war, but when the British prevailed and tensions calmed, they began returning.

In 1763, the British government established the Proclamation Act in which the Proclamation Line, a vertical line, prohibited westward expansion beyond that point. However, settlers paid little attention. This continuous push farther west did not sit well with the Native American tribes on the other side of the Proclamation Line. In 1763, led by Odawa (or Ottawa) leader Pontiac, several confederacies of Native American tribes joined together to go to war. They attacked British forts and settlements, stealing goods, destroying property, and killing inhabitants.

Although Pontiac eventually turned from warring to negotiating with the British in the hopes of establishing good trade relations, violence against local inhabitants continued. On June 26, 1764, a small group of Delaware warriors beat to death and scalped a pregnant woman near Fort Loudoun and preceded to a school near Greencastle, where they killed ten schoolchildren and their teacher. Already weary from the constant fear of attacks, the community around the Conococheague Settlement in Cumberland County (now Franklin County) was horrified by these events.

To stymie the Native American’s war ability, the Indian Trade Act of 1763 made it illegal to trade with Native Americans any goods that could be used in warfare, including tomahawks, scalping knives, gunpowder, whiskey, and rum. However, settlers knew illegal trading took place and were on the lookout for prohibited goods passing through their communities.

The Black Boys

On edge because of the recent Native American attacks, residents of the Conococheague Valley gathered funds to put together a company of rangers charged with protecting them. They enlisted James Smith as the company’s leader. Smith, a captain during the French and Indian War, had been captured and spent several years living and learning Native American ways during his captivity. His experience made him well-suited to lead the makeshift militia. Smith was joined by thirty to thirty-five Scots-Irish and German volunteers. While they were active, the region remained relatively peaceful. They took their name from the black paint they would wear to avoid identification.

George Croghan

The large profits to be made through trading and land expansion were irresistibly enticing to George Croghan, a Native American agent and businessperson from Philadelphia. Believing that trade and expansion would soon open west of the Appalachians, he planned to be the first trader to establish a foothold in Western Pennsylvania with hopes of moving into Ohio. He and his wealthy partners put together goods valued at more than one million dollars in today’s currency. His plan was to move the goods from Philadelphia to Fort Pitt, where he could establish trade with the Ohio tribe. The British at Fort Pitt also sought the goods to use in negotiations to keep the peace with the Native Americans.

Croghan moved the goods by wagon train to Pawling’s Tavern in Greencastle, Pennsylvania. Because of the rough terrain through the Appalachians, the shipment was transferred from wagons to eighty-one pack horses. A caravan of such size (a usual pack train included about twenty horses) drew local attention. When during the transfer a shipment broke loose and spilled, a local resident recognized scalping knives in the mix. Soon the word had spread through the community that Croghan was moving illegal goods.

Sideling Hill

Between fifty and one hundred residents stopped the caravan in Mercersburg and requested the goods be properly searched at Fort Loudoun, but the drivers ignored the demands and kept moving. Residents then called on Smith who quickly assembled his Black Boys. Smith and the Black Boys intercepted the pack train on March 6, 1765, at Sideling Hill, west of Great Cove, in the afternoon during a snowstorm. Smith asked the drivers to stop and have the goods inspected. When the drivers again refused, the Black Boys attacked, killing six horses and burning most of the goods.

Having fled to Fort Loudoun, the drivers complained that they had been attacked by highwaymen, failing to mention the illegal goods. A detachment of British soldiers was sent to the site to gather any undamaged goods and look for suspects. They arrested eight men and confiscated nine guns from the Black Boys.

First Siege

On March 11, 1765, two to three hundred armed residents surrounded the fort and demanded the release of the prisoners and the return of the weapons. The British refused but eventually agreed to a prisoner exchange for a British soldier who had been captured while leaving the fort. However, the commanding officer, Lieutenant Grant, refused to return the guns.

Widow Barr’s

On May 6, 1765, Smith’s Black Boys heard that a caravan was transporting illegal goods. Around twenty Black Boys mobilized and caught up with the caravan close to Fort Loudoun. Arguments spilled into violence, and the Black Boys killed several horses. Grant ordered Sergeant McGlashan into action. McGlashan and his troops found the Black Boys a mile north of the fort near a house known as Widow Barr’s. Shots were exchanged, and one of Smith’s men was wounded. As a result of this incident, the local magistrate William Smith issued a warrant for McGlashan’s arrest.

A few days later, Smith again approached the fort and requested that the Black Boys be allowed to inspect all goods traveling through the area. Grant refused, saying that the trade was sanctioned by the British government and allowed to proceed without interference. Nonetheless, Smith and several local magistrates conducted organized searches and began handing out signed passes to caravans permitting them to pass.

Grant’s Capture

On May 28, 1765, Smith and four Black Boys discovered Grant outside the fort, riding his horse. They captured Grant and demanded that he return the nine firearms he had held since March or pay forty pounds within five weeks. Grant agreed and was released but then refused to return the guns or pay the money.

Enraged, the Black Boys put out an announcement to recruit more supporters and bring Grant to justice. The announcement falsely bragged that the governor had promised to pardon all those involved. The end of the announcement said, “Those that have a mind to join us, free toleration for drinking, swearing, Sabbath breaking and any outrage which we have a mind to do, to let those Strangers know their place.”

The governor, William Penn, was outraged that he had been associated with such behavior. When a trade agreement with the Native Americans was reached on June 6, 1765, Penn published a widely circulated announcement—now that trade was open, the inspection of goods would not be tolerated, or troops would arrive to stop it.

Second Siege

Although Smith seemed to take the obvious hint from Penn and stopped harassing caravans passing through, his hostility toward Grant did not abate. On November 10, 1765, Smith and his Black Boys once again surrounded Fort Loudoun, demanding the return of the guns. Denied yet again, the Black Boys opened fire on the fort. After two days, the British ran out of ammunition, and Grant was forced to concede possession of the guns. However, Penn had given strict instructions as to their disposal, and they were given to a justice of the peace and never returned to Smith. Miraculously, no one was wounded or killed in the attack.

Conclusion

The Black Boys Rebellion was, at the time, considered a local affair, and received very little attention outside the Allegany Valley. The first publication of the events was in Smith’s memoirs, written in 1799. In 1937, Neil Harmon Swanson published The First Rebel, which framed Smith and his Black Boys as the first heroes of the American Revolution. Two years later, the film Allegheny Uprising starring John Wayne was released. It was based on Swanson’s sensationalized account with Smith as the hero.

Historians have expressed varying opinions on the place of the Black Boys Rebellion in the timeline leading to the American Revolution. Some argue that Smith’s rebellion was ultimately against British rule. However, others point to the localized nature of the conflict on the issue of trade and argue that Smith’s disagreement with the British had little to do with independence.

Bibliography

Klenovich, Rhea S. “James Smith and the Black Boys: Rebellion on the Pennsylvania Frontier, 1763-1769.” Cumberland County History, vol. 8, no. 1, 1991, gardnerlibrary.org/journal/james-smith-and-black-boys-rebellion-pennsylvania-frontier-1763-1769. Accessed 13 Apr. 2023.

Ramsburg, Karen. “History of Smith’s Rebellion 1765.” Smith Rebellion 1765, smithrebellion1765.com/?page‗id=245. Accessed 13 Apr. 2023.

Spero, Patrick. “1765 Frontier Rebellion Against the British” [video]. C-SPAN.org, 13 Dec. 2018, www.c-span.org/video/?455878-1/1765-frontier-rebellion-british#. Accessed 13 Apr. 2023.

Taube, Michael. “The Black Boys; Rebellion.” Claremont Review of Books, 9 Aug. 2019, claremontreviewofbooks.com/digital/the-black-boys-rebellion/. Accessed 13 Apr. 2023.

Verenna, Thomas. “The Real Allegheny Uprising.” Journal of the American Revolution, 4 Apr. 2014, allthingsliberty.com/2014/04/the-real-allegheny-uprising/. Accessed 13 Apr. 2023.