Cape-Xhosa Wars
The Cape-Xhosa Wars were a series of conflicts that occurred over roughly a century in the region of present-day South Africa, primarily between the Xhosa people and European settlers, particularly the Boers and later the British. Beginning in the early 1700s, trade relations initially fostered cooperation, but as more Boers settled in the Zuurveld area, tensions escalated into violent confrontations marked by cattle raids and territorial disputes. Throughout the conflicts, which spanned nine distinct wars, strategies evolved from intermittent raids to total warfare, reflecting the intensifying struggle for land and resources.
Significant events included the War of the Axe in the 1830s and the final confrontation in 1878, which saw the British utilize advanced weaponry to decisively defeat the Xhosa. The culmination of these wars resulted in the loss of Xhosa independence and the consolidation of British control over the region. The aftermath left a legacy of strained racial relations, influencing the socio-political landscape of South Africa for generations. These wars illustrate the complex interplay of cultural interactions, power struggles, and the impact of colonial expansion on indigenous populations.
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Cape-Xhosa Wars
At issue: Xhosa independence and British control of South Africa
Date: Intermittent wars between 1779 and 1878
Location: Cape Colony, South Africa
Combatants: Boers and British vs. Xhosa
Principal commanders:Boer, Adriaan van Jaarsveld; British, John Graham, Colonel Harry George Wakelyn Smith (1787–1860); Xhosa, Sandile (c. 1820–1878)
Principal battles: Zuurveld, Grahamstown
Result: Loss of Xhosa independence
Background
During the early 1700’s, the Boers and Xhosa established trade relations, but as more Boers settled in the Zuurveld between the Sunday and the Great Fish Rivers, violence erupted. Both sides raised cattle, and the conflict began as a series of raids and counterraids but developed into nine wars fought over the next hundred years.
Action
In 1779, several Boers crossed into Xhosa territory, killed a native herdsman, and captured some cattle. The Xhosa responded by taking thousands of Boer cattle and then hid in the forests. Commander Adriaan van Jaarsveld used gifts of tobacco to lure them out and then opened fire on the Xhosa. By 1781, the Xhosa had experienced several losses, and the war halted.
The second Cape-Xhosa War resulted from the need for additional pastures during a time of drought. The Xhosa crossed the Zuurveld (1811) to graze their cattle; the Boers tried to push them out. The Xhosa then drove the Boers out and kept most of their cattle. Shortly thereafter, the Boers rebelled against the British, and troops were called in to put down the rebellion. When the British left, the Xhosa formed an alliance with the Khoikhoi and pushed the Boers back across the Gamtoos River, leaving the Xhosa in control of the Zuurveld, which affected the supply of meat to Cape Town. Lieutenant Colonel John Graham was ordered to push the Xhosa to the other side of the Fish River. Graham and 2,000 British soldiers forced 8,000 Xhosa out of the Zuurveld and then built a series of forts to maintain control of the region. Fighting shifted from raid and counterraid to total warfare. The British, responding to appeals for assistance from a rival tribe, invaded Xhosa territory and captured 23,000 cattle, and in retaliation, 6,000 Xhosa attacked Grahamstown (1812) but were repulsed. A buffer zone was created between the colony and the Xhosa, and Forts Wilshire and Beaufort were built to prevent further Xhosa expansion.
Before long, settlers and Xhosa moved into the buffer zone, and violent confrontations occurred. In 1834, Colonel Harry George Wakelyn Smith attacked the Xhosa and annexed all territory between the Keiskama and Kei Rivers. A peace treaty was signed in 1835, but the land acquired by the British was returned to the Xhosa in 1836.
For the next ten years, relations remained peaceful until a Xhosa prisoner accused of stealing an ax killed a black policeman at Fort Beaufort. The British, experiencing initial setbacks against the recently armed Xhosa, who initiated a scorched-earth policy, eventually forced them to surrender. The Xhosa resorted to guerrilla tactics but failed to win any decisive victories. The final battle between the Xhosa and the British occurred in February, 1878, when 5,000 Xhosa attacked the main British forces. Using new British breech-loading rifles and nine-pounder cannon against muzzle-loading guns, the British quickly defeated the Xhosa. Their leader, Sandile, was shot in May, 1878.
Aftermath
The death of Sandile ended all resistance and destroyed Xhosa independence. The British consolidated control over northern Cape Colony and solidified their position in South Africa. Racial relations remained strained after these wars.
Bibliography
Anderson, Elizabeth. A History of the Xhosa of the Northern Cape: 1795–1879. Rondebosch, South Africa: University of Cape Town, 1987.
Maclennan, Ben. A Proper Degree of Terror: John Graham and the Cape’s Eastern District. Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1986.
Meinties, Johannes. Sandile: The Fall of the Xhosa Nation. Cape Town, South Africa: T. V. Bulpin, 1971.
Melton, John. The Edges of War: A History of the Frontier Wars (1702–1878). Cape Town, South Africa: Juta, 1983.
Stapleton, Timothy Joseph. Maqoma: Xhosa Resistance to Colonial Advance, 1798–1873. Johannesburg, South Africa: J. Ball, 1994.