Celtiberian Wars
The Celtiberian Wars were a series of conflicts between the Roman Republic and the Celtiberian tribes in the Iberian Peninsula, beginning in the 2nd century BCE. Following the Roman expulsion of Carthaginian forces from Spain around 206 BCE, Rome hesitated on how to govern the newly acquired territory. Sporadic fighting occurred until a more concerted Roman military presence was established, leading to increased tensions and revolts among the Celtiberians, particularly during the 150s BCE when tribes like the Lucitanians and the Numantines resisted Roman authority.
Key figures such as the Roman general Viriatus emerged during this period, leading successful guerrilla tactics against Rome until his assassination around 139 BCE. Despite various treaties and temporary peace agreements, the fighting persisted, culminating in a significant Roman campaign led by Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus in 134-133 BCE, which resulted in the siege and destruction of the fortified city of Numantia. This decisive victory effectively crushed the major Celtiberian resistance, allowing Rome to expand its control over north-central Spain by the end of the conflicts, significantly altering the region's political landscape. The Celtiberian Wars illustrate the complex interplay of military strategy, local resistance, and the consequences of imperial expansion.
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Celtiberian Wars
At issue: Roman control of the northern part of the central plateau of Spain
Date: 154-133 b.c.e.
Location: In and around Numantia in the upper valley of the Duero River
Combatants: Romans vs. Celtiberians
Principal commanders:Roman, several, including Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Numantinus (c. 184-129 b.c.e.); Celtiberian, Viriatus (d. c. 139 b.c.e.)
Principal battle: Numantia
Result: Roman victory crushed the last major resistance to Roman control of the northern plateau of Spain
Background
Roman forces entered the Iberian Peninsula in 218 b.c.e. to check the northerly advance of Carthaginian forces under the Barcas. After several major battles in the east and south, the Romans defeated the Carthaginians and expelled them from Spain by 206 b.c.e. For about ten years afterward, Rome wavered about what to do with Spain, but in 197 b.c.e., it established two military governorships, one in the east (Hispania Citerior) and one in the south (Hispania Ulterior). Until about 178 b.c.e., there was constant fighting in both east and south with little territorial gain. There then ensued a period of peace for about twenty years during which military service in Spain was considered a detriment to the careers of ambitious generals.
Action
In 154 b.c.e., revolt broke out in the south, particularly among the Lucitanians. In 153 b.c.e., a tribe in the east expanded its defensive walls and ceased paying taxes. Rome’s response was to increase the number of troops, forcing several tribes to federate with Numantia, considered one of the fiercest of the Celtiberian tribes. Flavius Nobilitor, the Roman general sent against this alliance, suffered a series of defeats (two at Numantia) and withdrew. His successor had better luck and offered terms of peace which the Celtiberians accepted. The Roman Senate refused to ratify the agreement and sent more troops. Nonetheless, peace was granted. The next general, having nothing to do in the east, assisted Roman commander Galba in his fight against the Lucitanians. Galba, who had suffered two defeats at the hands of the Lucitanians, offered peace and land to them, then systematically massacred most of them in 151 b.c.e.
This relative peace lasted until 145 b.c.e., by which time Roman forces had achieved victories over both Corinth and Carthage and could then redirect their attention to Spain. Meanwhile, the survivors of Galba’s massacre elected as their leader Viriatus, a master of guerrilla warfare, who handed Rome a series of crushing defeats until his assassination about 139 b.c.e. Both Viriatus’s model and his frequent alliances with Celtiberian tribes reawakened the Celtiberian confederacy. Initial Roman successes in 141 b.c.e. were reversed in 140 and 139. Once again, the local Roman commander and the Celtiberians agreed on peace terms, but the Senate refused to ratify the treaty. Rome continued to suffer defeats until 134 b.c.e., when there was a general outcry to end the war. In the last decade of the war, service in Spain was avoided at all costs because of heavy casualties at the hands of the Numantines.
In 134 b.c.e., Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Numantinus was elected consul to conclude the war. He had earlier served in Spain and had recently destroyed Carthage. He took with him an all-volunteer army that he trained himself and African cavalry. Unlike many of his predecessors, Scipio attacked the weaker allies of Numantia one by one before besieging Numantia itself in 134-133 b.c.e. In his attack on this city, he surrounded it with a ring of seven camps connected by walls and having towers from which to fire on the enemy. This effectively cut off water and food to the defenders. When Scipio offered unacceptable terms of surrender, the Numantines committed suicide rather than surrender.
Aftermath
Having destroyed Numantia, Scipio removed the last major source of resistance to Roman control of north central Spain. By the end of 133 b.c.e., Roman-controlled territory in this area had doubled.
Bibliography
Curchin, L. A. Roman Spain: Conquest and Assimilation. London: Routledge, 1991.
Keay, S. J. Roman Spain. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
Richardson, J. S. The Romans in Spain. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996.