Central American Federation Civil Wars
The Central American Federation Civil Wars were a series of conflicts that arose during the early 19th century following the region's independence from Spanish rule and brief annexation by Mexico. After gaining independence in 1823, the five provinces—Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica—formed the United Provinces of Central America, with a central government in Guatemala. However, tensions between the Liberal and Conservative parties led to a power struggle, with Liberals advocating for progressive reforms and Conservatives seeking to maintain traditional structures.
The first major conflict erupted in 1826 when President Manuel José Arce's reform policies prompted a civil war, which saw notable leaders like Francisco Morazán emerge. Over the next decade, the civil wars reflected deep societal divisions, culminating in a popular revolt led by Rafael Carrera against the Liberal government in 1837. This revolt was exacerbated by a cholera epidemic, leading to widespread violence and chaos. Ultimately, by 1839, the federation collapsed, and the provinces declared independence, resulting in the establishment of five separate nation-states. The legacy of these conflicts set the stage for future attempts at regional unity and governance in Central America.
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Central American Federation Civil Wars
At issue: The union of the Central American nations
Date: 1826–1840
Location: Central America
Combatants: Liberals vs. Conservatives in the five Central American nations
Principal commanders:Liberal, Francisco Morazán (1792–1842), Manuel José Arce (1787–1847); Conservative, Rafael Carrera (1814–1865), José del Valle (1776–1834)
Result: The confederation failed, the five provinces became separate nations, and the Conservatives were in control until 1865
Background
During the colonial period, Central America was a backwater in the Spanish Empire, although within the Viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico) it was an autonomous area governed by the captain general and audiencia (court) of Guatemala. The five separate provinces, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, paid little attention to the government in Guatemala City.
Central America achieved independence without warfare and with little difficulty. In January, 1822, Mexico, under Emperor Agustín de Iturbide I, annexed Central America. After Iturbide fell, Central America declared its independence on July 1, 1823. The United Provinces of Central America, which had a central government located in Guatemala, claimed jurisdiction over the five provinces.
There were stormy debates and civil wars during the first decades of independence. The Liberal and Conservative parties vied for power until well into the twentieth century. The Conservatives wanted to preserve as much of the past as possible, while the Liberals sought change to create a modern, progressive state. The Central American Constitution of 1824 reflected the ideals of the U.S. Constitution of 1789 and the Spanish Constitution of 1812, but the failure of the federal leaders to enforce it allowed the provinces to drift toward sovereignty.
Action
In 1825, Manuel José Arce, a Liberal, was elected president and began a radical program of reform, but disillusionment soon caused Arce and his fellow moderates to leave the party. This split enabled the Conservatives to seize control of the federal and Guatemalan governments in 1826. A bloody civil war, lasting three years, followed. On one side was a new Liberal leader, Francisco Morazán, and on the other were Arce and José del Valle. By 1827, bitter fighting raged throughout the five provinces. Anarchy and chaos characterized the area.
In 1829, the Liberals won and imprisoned or exiled the Conservative leaders. Federal President Morazán used extraconstitutional powers in an unsuccessful attempt to achieve order and stability and granted the provincial governments extraordinary powers to deal with opponents. The new president-elect, the moderate Valle, died before taking office. A chance to reach conciliation was lost in 1834, and the Liberal Morazán was reelected.
Still, relative calm prevailed in Guatemala until 1837, when a very different kind of conflict began. Elite political war was replaced by a revolt involving the Ladino population (Europeanized Indians) and Indians who made up the lower economic, political, and social element of the population. These lower classes bitterly rejected the Liberal program. Rafael Carrera emerged to lead the masses in a popular revolt directed against foreign elements and efforts to change traditions and rural life. The conflict was made worse by a cholera epidemic in 1837. Disaffected priests used the disease to create fear and distrust of the Liberals.
Popular uprisings, which broke out from Costa Rica to Guatemala, became a race war. Rural native peoples, Ladinos, and mulattoes joined together against urban whites and foreigners. Violence was widespread, and commerce and communications came to a standstill. The federation fell apart. Nicaragua seceded in April, 1839. In July, the federal congress declared the states to be free, sovereign, and independent. Carrera gained control of Guatemala and helped establish conservative regimes in Honduras and Nicaragua. In 1840, Morazán and Carrera met in a showdown. Morazán lost and fled into exile.
Aftermath
The United Provinces of Central America disappeared, and five Central American states emerged. The concept of confederation lived on to reemerge in the twentieth century.
Bibliography
Kanes, Thomas L. The Failure of Union: Central America, 1824–1975. Tempe: Arizona State University Press, 1976.
Woodward, Ralph Lee, Jr. Central America: A Nation Divided. 3d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Wortman, Miles L. Government and Society in Central America, 1680–1840. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982.