Diogenes

Greek philosopher

• Born: c. 412/403 b.c.e.
• Birthplace: Sinope, Paphlygonia, Asia Minor (now in Turkey)
• Died: c. 324/321 b.c.e.
• Place of death: Probably Corinth, Greece

The most famous and colorful of the Cynic philosophers, Diogenes lived in extreme poverty and shunned all comforts in his quest for a virtuous life.

Early Life

Diogenes (di-AWJ-uh-neez) was born in Sinope, an ancient Milesian community on the southern coast of the Black Sea. The colony of Miletus was ruled by Persian kings from 495 b.c.e. until Alexander the Great’s conquest in 331 b.c.e. Diogenes himself was probably Greek, of Milesian roots. Little is known about his early life, although it is probable that he came from an educated and well-to-do family. His father, Hicesias, was a banker in charge of issuing the city’s currency; coins minted between 360 and 320 b.c.e. and bearing what is presumed to be Hicesias’s name have been found in Sinopean archaeological digs.

The first known accounts of Diogenes all relate to his exile from Sinope, an event that was somehow related to an episode of tampering with the Sinopean currency. Several versions of the story exist, variously incriminating Diogenes, his father, or both. How they were involved and what exactly they did—whether defacing coins, counterfeiting currency, or altering the stamping process of coins—is not certain; in any case, it was an illegal activity resulting in exile.

This event is linked to another important story in Diogenes’ life that is much less probable but is recounted in various sources. To consult an oracle, supposedly Diogenes traveled to Delphi or Delos, places where those in search of guidance or answers to difficult questions came to receive answers or prophecies from people considered to be divinely inspired. The reply to Diogenes’ query was “falsify the currency.” (The word for “falsify” can also be translated as “counterfeit,” “deface,” or “alter.”) One suggestion is that when Diogenes heard this, he went back to Sinope and literally did what he was told. Another idea is that this event occurred after his exile and that Diogenes took the command allegorically. In any event, Diogenes’ exile was a key event in his becoming a philosopher and adopting a life of asceticism. It seems that by the time he appeared in Athens, he was already leading an ascetic life.

Life’s Work

Diogenes’ main goal was to “deface the currency” or to “put false currency out of circulation.” The Greek word for “currency” can also be translated to mean “social rules of conduct.” In “defacing the currency,” then, Diogenes sought to rebel against conventional norms that he felt to be false and contrived and to encourage people to live a life adhering to the rules of nature. Unlike other philosophers, he did not teach a group of students (although he did have students at various times) or engage in intellectual study; rather, he taught by the example of his lifestyle. He believed that virtue produced happiness. Self-sufficiency was the key to virtue, and self-sufficiency was attained by ridding oneself of money, possessions, physical comforts, traditional values, associations, and internal emotions and desires. These were all unnecessary creations of humanity that kept people from being self-sufficient and, therefore, happy; only by breaking these bonds could one return to a natural life. Diogenes thus lived a bare-minimum, instinctive existence, focusing on complete mastery of his only possession, his soul.

Diogenes looked to animals and their ways of life for inspiration; one story, for example, says that Diogenes was converted after watching a mouse darting about, not having any sure place to sleep or any guaranteed source of food or warmth. Diogenes earned the nickname “the Dog” soon after his arrival in Athens, and much of his behavior was doglike in its disregard for social norms. He practiced indifference to criticism and therefore felt free to say or do as he pleased. He slept in an earthenware barrel, had a ragged appearance, and acquired food wherever he could. He relieved himself wherever he felt the need and was known to eat raw meat. He was biting in his criticism and actions toward most other people, finding them loathsome. He also belittled other philosophers, finding fault with them all. He continually sought to change people’s values by criticizing them and shouting at them.

Diogenes also carried a great disdain for the state and civic responsibility. Many stories depict him suffering through self-inflicted physical hardships such as rolling in hot sand, walking on snow, or embracing a bronze statue in the cold of winter. These acts were designed to test the mind and body and achieve mastery over them, for through this training, he believed, virtue could be achieved.

On first glance, it appears that Diogenes had an intense hatred for people; however, he supposedly claimed that it was because of his love of his fellow humans that he sought to change their ways to something he felt was far superior. His standards for a “good man” were extremely high, and probably few could ever hope to meet them.

Though Cynicism is most commonly associated with Diogenes, he was preceded by an earlier Cynic, Antisthenes (c. 444 b.c.e.-c. 365 b.c.e.). Antisthenes, who was influenced by Socrates, is considered the founder of Cynicism, while Diogenes brought the essence of classical Cynicism to fruition. Antisthenes taught that traditional intellectual training and discourse did not necessarily produce enlightenment. For enlightenment to occur, he said, one needed to live a virtuous life, and by self-sufficiency of mind, one could become wise. This idea of virtue is central to Cynicism, and the lifestyle traits associated with it all center on the quest for virtue. Antisthenes showed indifference to material possessions, had no particular ties to society, and criticized many of the standards of his day.

Some sources claim that Diogenes was a pupil of Antisthenes, though others argue that this is a chronological impossibility. It is more likely that Diogenes read or heard about Antisthenes’ ideas. Diogenes’ lifestyle and actions were those of Antisthenes, carried to extremes. Indeed, Diogenes was critical of his predecessor, whose writings drew on various philosophical and metaphysical ideas, who lived a life of simplicity but not abject poverty, and who derived his living from teaching. Diogenes advocated complete asceticism and uncompromising contempt for intellectualism. It is possible that Cynicism derives its name from Diogenes’ nickname, “the Dog.” Cynos is the Greek word for “dog,” and the Cynics were in many respects doglike in their lifestyles and attitudes.

Understanding Diogenes’ life is difficult for several reasons. First, none of his writings still exist, only quotes and paraphrases by other writers and philosophers. Whether these writings were actually written by him is another question; opinion varies. Moreover, the legend that grew around the man after his death has probably obscured accurate factual data about him. Diogenes is referenced and described by a plethora of authors, but the information often conflicts. Many of the accounts attribute wise sayings and amazing anecdotes to him, and his eccentric nature perhaps encouraged some authors to exaggerate. It is therefore difficult to separate fact from fiction, but one can assume that the accounts point to the general essence of who Diogenes truly was.

One well-known story involves his walking around in daylight with a lantern looking for true human being—or, as has been added in modern times, “an honest man.” In another story, Alexander the Great encounters Diogenes and offers him anything he desires; Diogenes asks Alexander to step aside, as he is blocking the sunshine. Another account claims that Diogenes was captured by pirates and sold as a slave to a Corinthian named Xeniades. Diogenes asked the slave auctioneer to announce his skill as “governing men.” When Xeniades bought him, Diogenes told his new master that he would have to obey Diogenes. Diogenes lived in Xeniades’ house for several years and taught his sons his ideas. All these stories, regardless of whether they are entirely truthful in their accounts, portray Diogenes as self-sufficient, a slave to no person or land, and an overseer of others.

Despite his ascetic life, Diogenes is portrayed in a small minority of writings as more of a hedonist than an ascetic. This view points to Diogenes living as a professional beggar, denouncing wealth but accepting comforts so long as they were given to him and he was not forced to work for them. It is also clear that some people thought him to be psychopathic. His assuredness that he was always right and everyone else wrong, his extreme indifference to others’ opinions, and his disregard for social norms such as work and dress proved him crazy to some, including the philosopher Plato.

Diogenes is believed to have traveled extensively, but Athens and Corinth were his two main residences. He lived to a relatively old age and most likely died in Corinth, where he was living in a gymnasium called the Craneum. The cause of death has been variously reported as natural death, suicide by holding his breath, illness brought on by eating raw octopus, fever, and dog bite. Most reports state that the citizens of Corinth buried Diogenes in a tomb marked with an inscription and a marble effigy of a dog.

Significance

Marking a departure from the philosophical and moral standards of the time, Diogenes sought to promote a radical and rebellious return to a “natural” world by the example of his own lifestyle. By clinging to what he felt was virtuous (though it involved hardship and suffering) and condemning what he felt to be pretentious and worthless, he showed his commitment to honesty amid an often-hostile environment. Diogenes became a legend as much after his death as in his own time, and he set the stage for many important Cynics who succeeded him, such as his disciple Crates.

Bibliography

Brehier, Emile. The History of Philosophy. 7 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963-1969. Contains a short yet clear and revealing portrait of Diogenes and Cynicism. Includes many quotations from primary sources.

Dudley, D. R. A History of Cynicism from Diogenes to the Sixth Century A.D. 2d ed. London: Bristol Classical Press, 1998. A detailed history of Cynicism. The chapter on Diogenes cites primary source accounts of his life. Diogenes’ disciples are also described.

Gomperz, Theodor. Greek Thinkers: A History of Ancient Philosophy. 4 vols. 1901-1912. Reprint. Bristol, England: Thoemmes Press, 1996. Contains a concise account of Diogenes’ life in the perspective of other concurrent events.

Navia, Luis E. Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996. A comprehensive study of Cynicism that features a long and exhaustive study of Diogenes. Other chapters compare and contrast Diogenes with predecessors and successors, placing him in a historical and philosophical framework. His life is explored in detail, and every attempt is made to distinguish between fact and supposition.

Sayre, Farrand. Diogenes of Sinope: A Study of Greek Cynicism. Baltimore: J. H. Furst, 1938. Contains extensive writing on Diogenes’ life and spends one chapter exploring the legends and myths surrounding him.