Egypto-Turkish Wars
The Egypto-Turkish Wars were a series of conflicts between Egypt, led by Muḥammad ʿAlī Pasha and his son Ibrāhīm Pasha, and the Ottoman Empire during the early 19th century. Although Egypt was technically an Ottoman vassal, Muḥammad ʿAlī sought greater autonomy and demanded territorial rewards, which led to military confrontations beginning in 1831. Ibrāhīm Pasha launched a series of successful campaigns, notably capturing Acre in 1832 and defeating Ottoman forces at Homs and Konia, securing significant victories that brought him close to Constantinople.
The conflict intensified with a Russian intervention that resulted in the Convention of Kutahia, which temporarily placed Syria under Egyptian control. However, a subsequent Ottoman invasion in 1839 led to another defeat for the Ottomans at Nezib, but Ibrāhīm's march on Constantinople was ultimately halted by a coalition of European powers. These wars resulted in significant Ottoman military reforms due to repeated losses and helped solidify the Muḥammad ʿAlī dynasty's control over Egypt, even though Egypt could not retain Syria. The Egypto-Turkish Wars highlighted the shifting power dynamics within the region and had lasting implications for both Egyptian and Ottoman governance.
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Egypto-Turkish Wars
At issue: Supremacy in Syria
Date: 1831–1833; 1839–1840
Location: Levant
Combatants: Egyptians vs. Ottomans
Principal commanders:Egyptian, Ibrāhīm Pasha (1789–1848); Ottoman, Mehmed, Huseyin, Mehmed Rasid
Principal battles: Acre, Homs, Bilan, Konia
Result: Great power intervention
Background
Although technically an Ottoman vassal, Egypt’s ruler Muḥammad ʿAlī Pasha enjoyed de facto independence in 1831, when he demanded Syria as a reward for sending troops to suppress the Greek insurrection. Ottoman intransigence led to war.
Action
Muḥammad ʿAlī‘s son Ibrāhīm Pasha took a well-trained western-style army into Palestine. Like Napoleon, his target was Acre. Despite a powerful defense, Egyptian troops stormed the city (May 27, 1832). Next, Ottoman provincial forces under Mehmed were crushed at Homs (July 8, 1832). Another 20,000 Ottoman soldiers, commanded by Huseyin, dug into the pass at Bilan. Ibrāhīm’s 16,000 men secured a great victory there on July 29, 1832.
The Egyptians then invaded Anatolia, and Ottoman authorities rushed to create a new army. Under the Grand Vizier Mehmed Rasid, the new army numbered almost 50,000 troops of indifferent quality. Ibrāhīm, with fewer than 30,000 men, faced them at Konia (December 21, 1832). He gained a decisive victory, for Konia eliminated the last Ottoman troops between Ibrāhīm and Constantinople.
A Russian intervention resulted in the Convention of Kutahia (April 8, 1833), a truce that placed Syria under Egyptian control. Six years later, a new Ottoman army invaded Syria, meeting Ibrāhīm’s troops at Nezib (June 24, 1839). Lackluster performance at all levels created yet another Egyptian victory. Ibrāhīm was again ready to march on Constantinople, until intervention by England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia stopped him. Bowing to this powerful combination, Ibrāhīm pulled his army back into Egypt (1840).
Aftermath
Continual Ottoman defeats helped push through a package of government reforms in 1840. Ibrāhīm’s victories, although insufficient to hold Syria, did secure Egypt for the Muḥammad ʿAlī dynasty.
Bibliography
Fahmy, Khaled. All the Pasha’s Men: Mehemed Ali, His Army, and the Making of Modern Egypt. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Nicolle, David. “Nizam-Egypt’s Army in the Nineteenth Century.” The Army Quarterly and Defense Journal 108, no. 1 (January, 1978): 69–78; no. 2 (April, 1978): 177–187.
Al-Sayyid Marsot, Afaf Lufti. Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984.