Étienne François de Choiseul
Étienne François de Choiseul was a prominent French nobleman and diplomat during the 18th century, originally known as the comte de Stainville before being elevated to the title of duke of Choiseul. Born into an influential family in Lorraine, Choiseul received a traditional aristocratic education and began his career as a military officer. His diplomatic skills were recognized early on, leading to appointments as ambassador to Rome and Vienna. He gained favor at the court of Louis XV, particularly through his relationship with Madame de Pompadour, which facilitated his rise in political power.
In 1758, he became secretary of state for foreign affairs and, shortly thereafter, secretary of war during a tumultuous period marked by the Seven Years' War. Choiseul was instrumental in negotiating the Treaty of Paris, which concluded the war, although it resulted in significant territorial losses for France. Following the war, he sought to reform the military and navy and was involved in expanding French territories, including the acquisition of Corsica. Despite his successes, he faced political challenges and was ultimately dismissed from his positions in 1770. After retiring to his estate, Choiseul lived out his remaining years engaging in personal pursuits before passing away in 1785. His legacy reflects the complexities of nobility, diplomacy, and the shifting political landscape of pre-Revolutionary France.
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Étienne François de Choiseul
French statesman
- Born: June 28, 1719
- Birthplace: Nancy, France
- Died: May 8, 1785
- Place of death: Paris, France
Choiseul was an excellent military strategist and negotiator. He was responsible for the Pacte de Famille, uniting the Bourbon rulers of Europe against England, and for the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Seven Years’ War. He preserved the West Indies for France and added Lorraine and Corsica to its possessions.
Early Life
Étienne François de Choiseul (ay-tyehn frahn-swah duh shwah-zuhl) was a born into an influential family of Lorraine and known early in life as the comte de Stainville. He spent his childhood in the care of nurses, tutors, and governesses, a typical existence for children of the aristocracy in the eighteenth century, as French aristocratic parents rarely spent time with their children. For such parents, it was the family name that mattered, not the individual: Children were viewed simply as heirs to the family name and fortune. It was only once they became adults and distinguished themselves by bringing honor to the family that their importance as individuals increased.
Stainville’s initial choice of a career that would honor his family was in the military. Having received a traditional aristocratic education, he entered the French army as an officer. In his mid-thirties, however, he was called to diplomatic service. In 1754, Stainville was appointed ambassador to Rome and remained in the position until 1757. From 1757 to 1758, he served as ambassador to Vienna.
Life’s Work
At the court of Louis XV, Stainville came to the attention of both the king and his mistress Madame de Pompadour, who had enormous influence on the king. Stainville quickly became a favorite of Pompadour and enjoyed her protection until she died in 1764. As a result of his relationship with Pompadour and Louis, Stainville received the title of duke and was henceforth known as the duke of Choiseul. He is sometimes referred to as the duke of Choiseul-Stainville. In 1758, the same year he was raised to duke, he became secretary of state for foreign affairs, and in 1761 he was made secretary of war.
At this time, France was embroiled in the Seven Years’ War against England and Prussia. In 1761, Choiseul concluded the Pacte de Famille among the Bourbon rulers of France, Spain, Parma, and Naples. This treaty enabled them to resist the British navy. Great Britain’s navy was far superior to any navy of the Continent. The war did not go well for France; the country suffered defeat after defeat. It finally ended in 1763 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on February 10.
Choiseul represented France in the negotiations to end the war, and although he had to cede the French territories of Canada and the left bank of the Mississippi River to England, he managed to keep the West Indies. These islands were essential to the continuing growth of the French economy, because they provided the raw material for France’s sugar trade. Nevertheless, Choiseul was bitterly angered by France’s defeat and the concessions he was forced to make. Once back in France, he immediately implemented reforms in the army and navy to prevent such defeats from occurring in the future.
In 1766, Stanisław I Leszczyński, the exiled former king of Poland and Louis XV’s father-in-law, died. Choiseul carried through the arrangements made by Prime MinisterAndré-Hercule de Fleury before his death. Lorraine, which had been an independent duchy ruled by Stanisław, once again became part of France. In 1768, Choiseul further increased French territory by purchasing Corsica from Genoa.
Choiseul did not easily accept France’s defeat in the Seven Years’ War. He wanted revenge. Thus he formulated a plan to humiliate England. He also hoped to improve France’s financial situation and to restore its glory. His plan was to cause unrest in the British colonies, to bring about a revolt against England, and eventually to annex the colonies to France. As early as 1764, he sent two agents to the colonies to determine the needs of the colonists for a revolt. The report that came back in 1767 displeased him. There was no interest in revolting with the help of a foreign power.
Choiseul later devised a plan to invade England. However, as a result of the bumbling of his agents, the plan’s existence was used by Charles d’Éon de Beaumont, chevalier d’Éon, to blackmail Louis XV. A dreadful scandal resulted, just at the moment the comtesse du Barry and her faction were working to discredit Choiseul with the king.
Choiseul was unable to quell the political unrest within France. The parlements, largely dominated by allies of the Jansenists, were constantly opposing the king. The Jansenists and the Gallicans were once again vocally at odds with the Jesuits. The philosophes were at odds with the Jesuits. It happened that a member of the Jesuit order was implicated in a bankruptcy. The Parlement of Paris used this incident to suppress the Jesuits in 1762. Choiseul made no effort to intervene. His allegiance to Madame de Pompadour was undoubtedly a factor. She had been denied the sacraments by the Jesuits; she detested them and wished to see them ruined. Thus, Choiseul sacrificed the Jesuits to placate a number of factions and to gratify Madame de Pompadour.
The parlements continued to challenge the absolute power of the king. In 1764, this opposition intensified in the Affaires de Bretagne. In 1765, the parliamentarians of Rennes resigned. Louis-René de Caradeuc de La Chalotais, the procureur-général (attorney general), was arrested for making injurious remarks against the king. The Paris Parlement supported Rennes. Finally, on March 3, 1766, Louis XV addressed the Parlement and reaffirmed the absolute power of the king.
Madame de Pompadour, who had been in failing health for some years, died in 1764. Choiseul continued to support the parliamentarians. After the death of Madame de Pompadour, Louis XV took the comtesse du Barry as his mistress. She and Choiseul despised each other. Factions at court realigned and influence with the king shifted. Du Barry allied herself with the dévot faction, which had always been enemies of Madame de Pompadour and Choiseul. In December, 1770, on the advice of René Nicolas de Maupeou, one of du Barry’s allies, Louis XV dismissed Choiseul. The disgraced Choiseul retired to his estate of Chanteloup. There, in his later years, he raised Swiss cattle. He died in Paris in 1785.
Significance
Étienne François de Choiseul exemplified the lifestyle and values of the French nobility during the reign of Louis XV. He began his career as an army officer, found his way into the court, and used the favor he garnered at court to obtain positions in the government. He availed himself of the financial benefits to be had at court as well, being appointed to the lucrative position of colonel general of the Swiss Guards. His skill at diplomacy allowed Choiseul to give something back to his nation, as he negotiated the best possible terms for France in the Treaty of Paris, preventing the Seven Years’ War from damaging French power and prestige even further.
Choiseul spent lavishly and despised avarice as the greatest antisocial vice. He loved his wife but was unfaithful to her. Charming yet quick of wit and capable of bitter sarcasm, he was at ease in the salons where intellectuals and aristocrats met to discuss philosophy, science, and literature. Possessed of a cosmopolitan culture, his interests included Chinese architecture, Flemish painting, and English gardens. Not devoutly religious, he counted the philosophes among his friends.
Bibliography
Algrant, Christine Pevitt. Madame de Pompadour: Mistress of France. New York: Grove Press, 2002. Details life of Pompadour. Discusses her role in administration of French government and her relationship with Choiseul.
Butler, Rohan d’Olier. Choiseul. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980. Intended as the first volume of what was to be a longer study, this excellent biography in English details Choiseul’s early life, from 1719 to 1754.
Doyle, William. Old Regime France: 1648-1788. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. A wealth of information on France’s overseas involvement, politics and public life, Choiseul, and the American colonies.
Jones, Colin. The Great Nation: France from Louis XV to Napoleon. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003. Looks at the reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI as periods of effective royal power, military achievement, and cultural prestige. Chapter 6 focuses on Choiseul, his military achievements and his scapegoats (dévots and Jesuits).
‗‗‗‗‗‗‗. Madame de Pompadour: Images of a Mistress. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2002. Scholarly biography recounts her life and role at court using the paintings of her to show how she utilized her image to advance her career.
Roche, Daniel. France in the Enlightenment. Translated by Arthur Goldmann. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000. Highly detailed cultural history examines lives of all classes: the king, nobility, bourgeoisie, peasants. Looks at the period as important in its own right, not just as a prelude to the revolution.