France in the Ancient World

Related civilizations: Celts (Gaul), Franks.

Date: 8000 b.c.e.-700 c.e.

Locale: Present-day France

France in the Ancient World

France, derived from the Late Latin Francia, is named for the Franks who were members of a Germanic tribe, especially the Salian Franks who conquered Gaul about 500 c.e. In antiquity, the region consisted of the territory south and west of the Rhine, west of the Alps, and north of the Pyrenees, and included present-day Belgium.

History

Traces of prehistoric humans go back as far as one million years or more in the territory of modern France. The Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age, period began about 10,000 b.c.e. and extended to about 7500 b.c.e. During this period, a warming of temperatures encouraged the development of forested regions. Animals such as the reindeer and the seal tended to migrate or disappear. The people lived from hunting wild boar and oxen and from gathering fruit. Tanning made its appearance as well as pottery and basket weaving.

The Neolithic, or Recent Stone Age, extends from about 6500 b.c.e. to about 2000 b.c.e. and is characterized by a movement away from hunting and gathering to a more sedentary life. The growing of grains and the raising of animals began and villages were established. The art of polishing stones developed. The oldest known inhabitants of the territory of France were the Iberians, who came north from the peninsula of Spain about the year 2000 b.c.e. The later Stone Age was influenced by two different cultural groups. The first came from the area of the Danube and was primarily felt in the eastern part of the Paris Basin. The second was Mediterranean and established itself more in the southeast. Paradoxically, although people in this period exhibited a tendency to be attached to the land, there was also considerable migration. Coastland areas began to experience significant growth in population. About 2000 b.c.e., the area of the Massif Armorican became one of the main areas for the erection of megaliths in what is now France. The end of the Neolithic period is marked by the introduction of the use of metals.

The Bronze Age in Western Europe began about 2000 b.c.e. and lasted until about 850 b.c.e. Some scholars argue that bronze was introduced into France slowly, and by the time that bronze objects appeared in some quantity, it was already the age of iron. What seems certain is that these periods overlap to some extent. The periods also differ from region to region. In any event, this was the period of the birth of metallurgy in the territory of France. It is also the era of the empire of the Ligurians, who had come from northern Italy (around Genoa) and established themselves in much of Western Europe.

The Iron Age extends from about 900 or 800 b.c.e. until about 50 b.c.e. and the era of Augustus. The Celts drove out the Ligurians in about 800 b.c.e. The first part of this period, until about 500 b.c.e., is sometimes referred to as the Hallstatt period from the name of an archaeological site in the Austrian Alps. The second Iron Age is referred to as La Tène period, named for a site on the extreme north end of Neuchâtel Lake in Switzerland. The use of iron expanded quickly because deposits of ore are numerous in Europe and were often easy to extract. A large selection of tools and weapons made of iron (and bronze) has been found in more than two thousand graves at the Hallstatt site. One particularly characteristic iron weapon was a sword with a tapered blade.

The Celts, who were the inhabitants of the territory when it was first referred to as Gaul, were invaders who had come from central Europe about 1000 b.c.e. They did not constitute one nation but were made up of some sixty different groups, dominated by the wealthier among them who owned land and flocks. One of these tribes was named the Parisii, who gave their name to the capital, Paris (later called Lutèce under Roman domination). In the sixth century b.c.e., Greek merchants founded the city of Marseille, and the region was opened to influences of the Greek civilization.

After some two or three centuries of friction between the Gauls and the Romans, the latter settled in the southern part of Gaul in the second century b.c.e. and created a province that had Narbonne as its capital. The province extended from the Alps to the Pyrenees. Most of the rest of Gaul remained independent until the military campaign lead by Julius Caesar from 58 to 51 b.c.e. The defeat of the Gauls’ chief, Vercingetorix, in the year 52 b.c.e. at Alesia marked the end of the resistance of the Gauls and the integration of Gaul into the Roman Empire. The Romans, who were adept builders of roads, monuments, and public and private buildings, spread their civilization throughout all of Gaul but most visibly in the southeast quadrant of the “hexagon.” For about five centuries, this region developed significantly along the model of the influence of Rome. Excellent examples of Roman influence are found in cities such as Orange, Aries, and Nimes. Temples, theaters, public baths, triumphal arches, arenas, and aqueducts are characteristic of this region, as they were in typical Roman cities and villages.

In 406 c.e., the Vandals, who themselves were being pushed by the Huns from Eastern Europe, invaded Gaul from across the Rhine. Among them were the Visigoths who settled in southwestern Gaul and the Burgundians who settled in the area of Savoy and latter marched north into the area of Besançon. Meanwhile, two branches of Frankish tribes—the Ripuarians and the Salians—were settling in the northeast and in the area of Flanders, respectively. Although the Visigoths in the southwest seemed to be the most powerful of the groups, the bishops of Gaul withheld their support from them because of their acceptance of Arian beliefs, heretical according to the Christian Church, and the episcopal support was given to the Salian Franks in the north after their leader, Clovis, accepted Christianity.

Attila, king of the Huns, continued his expansion westward from the area of the Caspian Sea and led his armies of Huns, Alani, and Germans into Gaul in 451 c.e. They advanced through Metz as far as Orléans, but the Visigoths joined the Gallo-Romans to oppose Attila. Genevieve, the patroness of Paris, supposedly played a prayerful role in preventing Attila from capturing the city before he led his retreating armies back to the area of the Rhine.

The middle of the fifth century c.e. saw the rule of the first of the Frankish kings, and in 481 c.e., Clovis, a member of the Merovingian Dynasty, came to power. He was only fifteen years old when he succeeded his father, Childeric I, and only five years later (486 c.e.) he won a victory over Syagrius at Soissons, the last bastion of Roman authority in Gaul. In 493 c.e., Clovis married Clotilda, a Burgundian princess who had converted to Christianity. After his victory over the Allemanni at Tolbiac, Clovis had himself baptized a Christian. The king of the Visigoths, Alaric II, was defeated and killed by the soldiers of Clovis in a battle in 507 c.e. at Vouillé near Poitiers.

Clovis was probably the most influential of the Merovingian kings. He was clever and scheming and able to extend his authority, by force of arms or by assassination, over areas neighboring his own. Clovis was also able to get the support of the bishops who, in the disarray of the collapse of the Roman Empire, were able to exert considerable influence. Although Clovis had embraced Christianity, his cruelty was legendary, as illustrated by the famous incident of revenge for the “vase of Soissons.” At the death of Clovis in 511 c.e., the realm was divided between his four sons, Thierry, Clodomir, Childebert, and Chlotar I. Sons, grandsons, and nephews of Clovis struggled, plotted, and murdered one another until Dagobert I became king in 629 c.e.

Dagobert was successful in uniting most of the Frankish kingdoms. It is said that he reconstituted the unity of the Regnum Francorum (Frankish kingdom) for the second time since the death of Clovis. The assistance that Dagobert gave to the monastery of Saint Denis near Paris helped make it one of the most influential religious centers of the Middle Ages in France. Dagobert’s death in 639 c.e. led to a succession of weak Frankish kings, until Charles Martel defeated the Saracens at Poitiers in 732 c.e. The grandson of Charles Martel became Charlemagne.

Agriculture

As early as 4000 b.c.e., farming appeared along the coast of the Mediterranean and spread northward through the Rhone Valley to the forested areas of central France and westward to Brittany. The invention of improved tools contributed to deforestation for the sake of agriculture. Fire was also used to remove forests. Traces of grains have been found in the Dordogne, and wheat and barley were cultivated in Roussilon. The cave of Murée de Montpezat (Basses-Alpes) has yielded certain legumes and even a variety of peas.

Settlements

Prehistoric humans had taken shelter in caves and under the protection of large rocks. In regions where there were no natural shelters, tentlike structures were built in the open air with bones of mammoths serving as framing, and skins and twigs as coverings. As the population became more sedentary, shelters became more permanent. In the Danubian cultures, huts became rectangular and showed a more regular framework. Each house had a hearth where fire could be used but controlled.

Navigation and transportation

Some of the slow-flowing rivers of northern France, such as the Seine, the Saône, and the Somme, were probably used for transportation. In the south, the Garonne and certainly the Rhone were much less navigable. On land, horses were used to pull two-wheeled carts and chariots. During the era of the Romans, the high-quality and long-lasting roads, especially in the southeast, aided land transportation.

Economics

Manufacturing and transportation became more important as certain techniques were developed. As people became more familiar with alloys used in tools for deforestation and as raw materials were needed to make these alloys, small industries began to develop.

Government and law

When Gaul came under Roman rule, the area was divided into provinces, each ruled by a Roman governor. The barbarians, especially the Visigoths, opposed the leadership of Rome. Clovis, however, was able to establish the first widespread unity in the country, referred to as the Regnum Francorum.

Religion and ritual

Gallic society was greatly dominated by the Druids, who were the priests of the Gauls. The Druids met in the forests, especially that of the Carnutes (Chartres), and believed in several gods. They attached mysterious powers to certain plants. The judicial powers of the Druids gave them a political and social as well as a religious influence. In some areas, for example in the southeast at Mount Bego (north of Nice), engravings of horned bulls suggest that this animal was the object of religious cults.

Death and burial

As early as 4500 b.c.e., Stone Age people were erecting funeral monuments under gigantic mounds with huge vertical markers (menhirs and stelae) and horizontal stones (dolmens). The best known of these monuments are those of Carnac, which possesses the most dense concentration of megaliths in all the world. Some of these stones are the size of large trucks, and the techniques used to elevate these megaliths remain speculative.

More common in other areas of France were burials in mounds (tumuli) and in caves. The burial mounds of Haguenau (Bas-Rhin) show a strong aristocratic influence. In the oldest graves of the Bronze Age, one person was buried alone. In later periods, collective graves of women and children are found; usually three or four, but sometimes up to eight people were placed together. Some burial sites in the urnfields (les Champs d’Urnes) show the dead person’s place in society because of the quality and quantity of objects placed with the body.

War and weapons

The need for additional lands and the desire to control deposits of minerals necessary for the making of tools and weapons led to attacks on communities by neighboring peoples. Increasing demographics meant that more land was disputed, and archaeologists have found skeletons with arrows. The warrior became an important individual in society, and many different kinds of swords, daggers, and various metal weapons have been found in burial sites.

Women’s life

In prehistoric France during the hunter-gatherer era, it is quite probable that the woman guarded the dwelling place and looked after the children while the male was absent. The woman’s role as caregiver is also suggested by the bodies of women and children that have been buried together. During the Bronze Age, women wore the jewelry that has been found in tombs, usually necklaces, bracelets, leg bands, and hairpins.

Writing systems

Images and picture writing are found in much prehistoric art. Stick animals and people are engraved in polished stones of the southeast of France. Some figures, such as crosses and swastikas, are also found. In the Roman era, inscriptions on coins and pottery are good examples of the writing of the times.

Bibliography

Haine, W. Scott. The History of France. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2000.

Kuhn, Herbert. The Rock Pictures of Europe. Translated from the German by Alan H. Brodrick. Fair Law, N.J.: Essential Books, 1956.

Milisauskas, Sarunas. European Prehistory. New York: Academic Press, 1979.

Wertime, Theodore A., and James D. Muhly, eds. The Coming of the Age of Iron. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980.