George I

Elector of Hanover (1698-1727) and king of Great Britain and Ireland (r. 1714-1727)

• Born: May 28, 1660
• Birthplace: Osnabrück, Hanover (Germany)
• Died: June 11, 1727
• Place of death: Osnabrück, Hanover (now in Germany)

George I became king at a time when the constitutional settlement brought about by the Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689 made it necessary for the Crown and Parliament to learn to work together. His firmness and moderation at a time of bitter partisanship stabilized the Hanover Dynasty on the British throne. While maintaining the authority of the king in foreign policy and the appointment of ministers, George I was willing to give his ministers wide discretion in domestic policy and public finance, where the major consideration was the support of Parliament. In so doing he contributed to the development of cabinet government.

Early Life

George Louis, elector of Hanover, was already an experienced ruler in 1714 when he became King George I of Great Britain and Ireland. Through his father he inherited the electorate of Hanover, a medium-sized north German state. His mother was the granddaughter of King James I of England, and as the closest Protestant descendant of the Stuart family, she and her heirs were named in the Act of Settlement (1701) as successors to the British throne should Queen Anne (r. 1702-1714) die childless. In 1682, George Louis married Sophia Dorothea, of the neighboring duchy of Celle, a marriage intended to extend the Hanoverian territories. The marriage produced an heir, George Augustus, who later became King George II. In other respects the marriage was unhappy, and when Sophia Dorothea was found guilty of adultery, she was shut up in a castle for the rest of her life.

George Louis succeeded his father as elector of Hanover in 1698. As a young man George Louis gained military experience fighting against the Turks and in war against King Louis XIV of France, whose power and ambitions made him the dominant force in European affairs. When he succeeded to the electorate of Hanover in 1698, George Louis continued to be active in opposition to Louis XIV, joining with Great Britain and other states in the alliance that eventually stopped Louis XIV in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714).

When his mother died in 1714, George Louis became the lawful successor to Queen Anne. Despite the Act of Settlement, the intense partisan politics of the period gave reason to think that the death of Queen Anne might be followed by an effort to restore the Stuart claimant, James Edward, son of King James II. James Edward was Catholic, and as such he was objectionable to the British people. He was also dependent on the national enemy, Louis XIV of France. For these reasons most British leaders, Whig or Tory, regarded the Hanoverian succession as inevitable. Queen Anne resented the Hanover family, and the Tories, who held office during her last four years, kept George Louis at arm’s length. The Whigs seized the opportunity to gain favor with the successor. The Whig case was strengthened when the Tory ministry of Queen Anne negotiated a peace treaty with Louis XIV that George Louis and the Whigs regarded as a betrayal of the allies. When Queen Anne died in 1714, George Louis was firmly attached to the Whigs, and he relied upon the Whigs for the duration of his reign.

Life’s Work

Accession to the British throne enhanced the influence of George Louis and Hanover in the affairs of the German states, but his role as king of Great Britain and Ireland is the basis for his historical importance. As she lay dying in August, 1714, Queen Anne conferred power upon a group of moderate political leaders, and the accession of George I to the throne passed without serious challenge in England. In 1714 the Stuart claimant, James Edward, landed in Scotland and rallied considerable support before the uprising was subdued. James Edward returned to France and eventually died in Rome.

The new king spoke English, although haltingly, and he preferred to conduct business in French, which at that time was the universal language of the European ruling class. He was short and stocky, with the bluff manner of a soldier. He enjoyed himself in Hanover, but in England he was shy and withdrawn, preferring the company of his Hanoverian advisers. He was always accompanied by two Turks—Mohammed and Mustapha—who were his personal servants and bodyguards. He enjoyed music and was a patron of George Frideric Handel, but he was uncomfortable with political chatter and the elegance of court life and preferred to associate quietly with a few close friends. George I continued to govern Hanover personally and made five visits there during his reign.

George I brought with him from Hanover his son, George Augustus, who became prince of Wales; a group of Hanoverian advisers; and two German women who played an important part in his life and reign. Madame Melusine Schulenburg (later duchess of Kendal) was the king’s mistress and bore him three illegitimate daughters. Madame Sophia Charlotte Kielmansegge (later countess of Darlington) was an illegitimate half sister of the king. In reference to their figures the British public called them “the Maypole” and “the Elephant.” British politicians soon recognized the importance of remaining on good terms with them, and they in turn accumulated substantial wealth by providing access to the king.

The major importance of the reign of George I was the establishment of the Hanover Dynasty on the British throne. At his accession George I placed the Whigs in office, and his occasional efforts to bring moderate Tories into the ministry were frustrated by the intensity of party feeling. The Whigs gratified the king by persuading the House of Commons to vote a generous civil list, which was the financial support for the royal family, royal household, and civil government. Supported by the electoral influence of the Crown, the Whigs won a decisive victory in the election of 1715. The Whigs consolidated their power by the Septennial Act (1716), which extended the term of the House of Commons to a maximum of seven years, and the Riot Act (1715), which gave local authorities increased power to suppress disorders by calling in the army. Excluded from power and accused of loyalty to James Edward, the Tory Party declined as a political force although Toryism remained strong among the people.

The unity of the Whigs, and the security of the Hanover monarchy, were shaken by disputes between the Whig leaders. The active foreign policy of Lord Stanhope led to a split within the Whig Party in 1717, with lords Stanhope and Sunderland continuing in power while Lord Townshend and Robert Walpole curried favor with the prince of Wales and went into opposition. Walpole made so much trouble for the ministers in the House of Commons that in 1720 a reconciliation took place and Townshend and Walpole returned to office. Later that year a financial boom and crash occurred, which was called the South Sea Bubble. The king, his mistress, and many prominent politicians were implicated, and the outrage of those who lost money in the Bubble threatened the Hanover Dynasty. Walpole became first lord of the treasury in 1721 and masterfully restored financial stability and public confidence. When Stanhope died in 1721 and Sunderland died in 1722, the ascendancy of Townshend and Walpole was assured. Under the watchful leadership of Walpole, the Hanover monarchy was secure.

The reign of George I was important for the development of cabinet government. The word “cabinet” referred to a meeting of the king with the principal ministers to discuss policy. Queen Anne presided at her weekly cabinet meetings, but George I was not fluent in English and for that reason his ministers usually met without him, communicating their advice later. The king was expected to exercise the powers of the Crown personally, but the need to work with Parliament made it essential to govern through ministers with parliamentary support. The king had the deciding voice in the appointment of ministers, although George I’s freedom of choice was limited by his commitment to the Whigs. George I dominated foreign policy, but he was willing to leave to his ministers most of the details of politics, elections, administration, and public finance. The ministers were also members of the House of Lords or the House of Commons, and as such they exercised a dual role as officers of the Crown and members of the legislative body. The cabinet became the informal group that worked to keep the Crown and Parliament in harmony. Although more than a century was required before the modern conventions of cabinet government were firmly established, the origins of these conventions are to be found in the political necessities of the Hanoverian period.

The accession of George I brought a new direction to British foreign policy. The death of Louis XIV in 1715 led to weak government in France, and Stanhope was able to restore good relations with that country. The main concern of George I was the Great Northern War, then raging between Sweden and Russia. He used the opportunity to gain the territories of Bremen and Verden for Hanover. Attempts of Peter the Great of Russia (r. 1682-1725) to extend his influence into northern Germany were resisted. Steps were taken to secure British trade in the Baltic area, which produced maritime supplies that were essential for the British navy and merchant marine. With the accession of George I, Great Britain became actively involved in the affairs of northern and central Europe, much to the dismay of those who favored a “blue water” policy that avoided continental entanglements.

In the reign of George I, the religious dissension that had marked the reign of Queen Anne began to subside. As a Protestant, George I had no difficulty in conforming to the Church of England, as required by law. The king favored broad religious toleration, but in Great Britain religion was intensely political, and the king’s efforts to remove religious disabilities were frustrated by party politics. Protestant Dissenters, primarily Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and Baptists, were entitled to religious toleration but were excluded from political office under the Crown or in local government. Although the Dissenters were strong supporters of the Whigs, the Whig ministers found it politically expedient to support the privileged position of the Church of England, and the Dissenters settled into the niche provided for them. Catholics enjoyed neither political rights nor religious toleration, and the claim of James Edward to the Crown tarred Catholics with charges of disloyalty. George I’s efforts to reduce Catholic disabilities were frustrated by the intense anti-Catholicism of the British public and Walpole’s fear that Catholics would support another attempt at a Stuart restoration.

The final step in the establishment of the Hanover monarchy was the peaceful succession of the heir. In 1717, George I quarreled with his son, the prince of Wales, for the prince felt politically ignored and inadequately supported financially. George I banished the prince and his family from the royal court and took custody of their children. The prince and his charming wife, Princess Caroline, set up a separate court at Leicester House where dissatisfied politicians gathered. When they left the Whig ministry in 1717, Townshend and Walpole conspicuously courted the favor of the prince, but when they returned to office in 1720, they brought about a reconciliation of the king and his heir. George I was in Hanover in June, 1727, when he became ill and died. The prince of Wales was in England, where he was immediately proclaimed King George II. James Edward, residing in Rome, made no attempt to return to England, and the accession of the new king passed without incident. George I was buried in Hanover, where he had spent most of his life and which was always closest to his heart.

Significance

King George I was important for the institutional developments of his reign. His claim to the British throne was clearly established in law; his achievement was to avoid the mistakes that might have revived the succession to the throne as a controversial issue. George I was a workaday king, who lacked the divine-right majesty of his Stuart predecessors or the romantic aura that gathered around Queen Victoria. The “mixed and balanced constitution” of eighteenth century Great Britain required a king who would be personally involved in government while keeping the support of Parliament and the people.

George I maintained those powers essential to personal monarchy: leadership in foreign policy and control of the appointment of ministers. His firm rule and steady reliance on the Whigs gave him capable ministers and a solid political base. By expecting his ministers to maintain support in Parliament, he contributed to the origins of cabinet government. His concern for Hanover brought Great Britain more fully into the balance-of-power relationships of the European states. When the Crown passed peacefully to his son, his major goal was accomplished: establishment of the Hanover family on the British throne.

Bibliography

Hatton, Ragnhild. George I: Elector and King. London: Thames and Hudson, 1978. The definitive biography.

Holmes, Geoffrey. The Making of a Great Power: Late Stuart and Early Georgian Britain, 1660-1722. London: Longman, 1993. Examines the economic advances, scientific and intellectual developments, and political changes that enabled Great Britain to become a major European power during George I’s reign. Holmes explains how a more socially cohesive and constitutionally stable country was able to withstand the Jacobite Rebellion of 1715-1716 and the South Sea Bubble.

Mangan, J. J. The King’s Favour: Three Eighteenth Century Monarchs and the Favourites Who Ruled Them. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991. Describes how George I, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Louis XV of France relied on favored politicians to rule their countries.

Plumb, J. H. The First Four Georges. Boston: Little, Brown, 1975. Interesting, well-written chapters on the Hanover monarchs by the outstanding authority on the period. The 1975 edition is profusely illustrated.

‗‗‗‗‗‗‗. Sir Robert Walpole: The Making of a Statesman. London: Cresset Press, 1956. A masterful biography of the great Whig politician who rose to power in the reign of George I.

Williams, Basil. The Whig Supremacy, 1714-1760. 2d ed. Revised by C. H. Stuart. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1962. A good overview of the period.