German Civil War of 1077–1214
The German Civil War of 1077-1214 was a protracted conflict characterized by power struggles between rival factions for control of the Holy Roman Empire. Central figures included Henry IV, who sought to reassert royal authority amidst opposition from powerful magnates and the Saxons, and Rudolf von Rheinfelden, who was elected as a rival king during the Investiture Conflict with Pope Gregory VII. The war featured significant battles, including those at Melrichstadt and On the Elster, and ultimately led to Henry IV's temporary consolidation of power.
Following Henry IV's death in 1106, his son Henry V faced rebellions and was succeeded by Duke Lothair von Supplinburg, who sought to assert independence for Saxony. The rivalry between the Staufen and Welf families intensified, leading to further conflicts, including the wars involving Henry the Lion and Frederick I Barbarossa, who attempted to restore royal authority. The power dynamics shifted with the death of key leaders, leading to fragmented governance within the empire.
The conflict culminated in the political maneuvering surrounding the succession following Henry VI's death, which saw Pope Innocent III play a significant role in shaping the monarchy. The eventual ascension of Frederick II marked a temporary stabilization, but the empire remained weakened, paving the way for a future interregnum where local nobility gained greater authority, diminishing the power of the emperor to a largely symbolic role.
On this Page
German Civil War of 1077–1214
At issue: Control of the Holy Roman Empire
Date: March 15, 1077-July 27, 1214
Location: Holy Roman Empire
Combatants: German kings (Salian and Staufen dynasties) vs. German magnates (Welf/Guelph and other dynasties)
Principal commanders:Salian and Staufen, Emperor Henry IV (1050–1106), Emperor Henry V (1081–1125), King Conrad III (1093–1150), Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa (c. 1123–1190), Emperor Henry VI (1165–1197), Emperor Frederick II (1194–1250); Magnates, Duke Rudolf von Rheinfelden of Swabia (d. 1080), Emperor Lothair III (1075?-1138), Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria (1129–1195), Emperor Otto IV (1175?-1218)
Principal battles: Melrichstadt, Flarchheim, On the Elster, Welfesholz, Flochberg, Wassenberg, Bouvines
Result: Staufen victory; but the once powerful German kingship became insignificant
Background
The German kings before Henry IV had become some of the most powerful rulers in Europe, dominating northern Italy, Burgundy, and Bohemia with the title of Holy Roman emperor. During Henry IV’s childhood, however, magnates plundered the crown’s resources. Once he attained his majority, Henry began to reassert royal prerogatives. The Saxons in particular opposed his regime, but Henry defeated them at Homburg on the Unstrut (June 9, 1075). Unfortunately, Henry then quarreled with Pope Gregory VII about the election and control of bishops, which escalated into the so-called Investiture Conflict (1076–1122). His enemies used this opportunity to elect Rudolf von Rheinfelden, duke of Swabia, as a rival king on March 15, 1077.
Action
Henry and Rudolf fought two inconclusive battles at Melrichstadt (August 7, 1078) and Flarchheim (January 7, 1080). Bolstered by Pope Gregory’s second excommunication of Henry, Rudolf’s forces renewed the offensive, routing Henry at On the Elster (October 15, 1080). Rudolf suffered mortal wounds, including losing his right hand, the one that had once sworn fidelity to Henry. Most people saw Rudolf’s death as a judgment of God. Freed from serious rivals, Henry conquered Rome in 1084 and became emperor.
Beginning in 1093, the German magnates succeeded in getting Henry’s son Henry V and grandson Conrad (later King Conrad III), to rebel against their father. In late 1105, Henry V trapped his father into surrendering his authority; however, Henry IV escaped and fought against his son for a few months until his death. Henry V was crowned emperor in 1111, but a year later, the Saxons revived their defiance. The Saxon duke Lothair von Supplinburg, later Lothair III, prevailed over Henry V at Welfesholz (February 11, 1115), liberating Saxony from royal dominion.
Henry’s death in 1125 without an heir encouraged a rivalry between the two most powerful families in the empire, the Staufens and the Welfs. In a disputed election, the magnates elected Duke Lothair of Saxony, whose daughter promptly married the Welf heir, Duke Henry the Proud of Bavaria. However, Frederick von Staufen, duke of Swabia, heir of Henry V, proclaimed his brother Conrad as king. In the ensuing war, Conrad made little progress and eventually came to terms with Lothair.
Lothair’s death in 1138 allowed Archbishop Albero of Trier to arrange Conrad’s election as king, which the Welfs reluctantly accepted. The next year, however, the new Welf heir, Henry the Lion, inherited both the duchies of Saxony and Bavaria. Conrad tried to deprive Henry of one, but only provoked the Welfs into warfare. An uneasy peace was achieved in 1142, when Henry renounced Bavaria. After the miserable failure of the Second Crusade (1147–1149), fighting resumed. At the Battle of Flochberg (1150), Conrad temporarily defeated the Welfs.
The compromise successor to Conrad in 1152 possessed a chance to revive royal authority. The new king, Conrad’s nephew Frederick I Barbarossa, had a Staufen father and a Welf mother. Frederick allowed Henry the Lion to have both Saxony and Bavaria. Henry the Lion proceeded to crusade against the Slavs, building up a great territorial power. Meanwhile, Frederick fought long wars to try to control Italy. Henry the Lion’s refusal to send reinforcements to Frederick may have contributed to Frederick’s significant loss to the Lombard League at Legnano (May 29, 1176). Soon Frederick used the complaints of Henry’s neighbors to convene a feudal court, which found Henry guilty of contumacy in 1180. Frederick then invaded Saxony to enforce the sentence. Henry surrendered and accepted exile.
After Frederick died while on the Third Crusade (1189–1192), Henry the Lion illegally returned from exile and tried to reclaim his possessions. Frederick’s son, King Henry VI, was hard-pressed to fight the Welfs and simultaneously assert a claim to the kingdom of Sicily. Only Henry the Lion’s death and the capture of his ally Richard I, the Lion-Hearted, quieted the opposition. In 1195, Henry conquered the Sicilian kingdom, uniting it with the empire.
Henry VI’s unexpected death in 1197 left only a toddler, Frederick II, as his heir. Pope Innocent III then intervened in the royal succession, approving the election of Henry the Lion’s son, Count Otto of Poitou and Brunswick. Henry VI’s brother, Duke Philip of Swabia, claimed the German kingship for the Staufen. In the ensuing warfare, Philip virtually succeeded in isolating Otto, especially after Wassenberg on the Roer (July 27, 1206). Philip’s assassination in 1208, however, allowed Otto to become emperor easily. Yet Otto soon alienated the pope by his attempts to seize territories in Italy. Therefore in 1211, the pope encouraged Frederick II to claim the empire. At the Battle of Bouvines (July 27, 1214), Frederick’s ally, Philip II, vanquished Otto.
Aftermath
Although Frederick II was soon secure as king and emperor, the German monarchy remained debilitated. Frederick concentrated most of his efforts on the kingdom of Sicily, leaving Germany to the magnates. With Frederick’s death in 1250, the empire faced the Interregnum, a period in which no clear royal candidate assumed power. Consequently, German government developed in the provinces under the rule of dukes, bishops, counts, and other nobility. The Holy Roman emperor became a figurehead.
Bibliography
Arnold, Benjamin. Medieval Germany, 500-1300: A Political Interpretation. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997.
‗‗‗‗‗‗‗. Princes and Territories in Medieval Germany. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Gravett, Christopher. German Medieval Armies 1000–1300. London: Osprey, 1997.
Haverkamp, Alfred. Medieval Germany 1056–1273. 2d ed. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1992.