Great Mississippi River Flood of 1993

Flood

Date: June-August, 1993

Place: Primarily Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, and Missouri

Result: 52 dead, 74,000 homeless, $18 billion in damage

Unlike other natural disasters, it is extremely difficult to pinpoint the actual starting point of the Great Mississippi River Flood of 1993. The river’s upper basin experienced above-normal rainfall levels in the spring that resulted in some earlier flooding, and fall weather produced subsequent flooding as well. Yet since the greatest carnage occurred during the heavy rains from June through August, 1993, most experts use these parameters as the official beginning and end of the great flood of 1993.

Causes. The flood of 1993 can be attributed to the record rainfall that dominated the Midwest’s weather during the summer of 1993. Other surface meteorological conditions, however, also played a pivotal role. Prior to the flood, the ground was already saturated, as soil moisture levels remained exceptionally high. Heavy winter snowmelt and spring rains further increased the dangers of flooding as the Mississippi River’s vast tributary system began emptying its excess into the river. This water, moreover, substantially increased the chances of daily precipitation, since evaporation tends to be recirculated in the form of rainfall. From June through August, the Upper Mississippi River basin rainfall was 200 percent above normal, and the 20 inches of rain was the highest recorded total dating back to 1895. Along the Iowa shores alone it exceeded 36 inches. This problem was further exacerbated by the unusual number of cloudy days that not only inhibited the sun’s ability to dry the land but also increased the likelihood of daily showers.

Human and Property Costs. The flood primarily affected the Upper Mississippi River basin in the area located north of Cairo, Illinois. While the damage affected commerce, industry, and housing in over one-third of the United States, the heaviest flooding occurred in various river towns in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, and Missouri.

This event represented the most costly flood on record in American history. Although the flood of 1927 resulted in the loss of 313 lives, compared to 52 in 1993, the property damage in 1993 was much more extensive. Floodwaters significantly ruined various portions of the physical landscape, wreaked havoc on river ecosystems, and destroyed crops. Its impact on the transportation system and agricultural income ravaged the region. Barges were unable to travel on the river for eight weeks. Major roads and highways were closed, often forcing people to miss work. Millions of acres of prime farmland remained under water for weeks, significantly weakening the country’s food production, and soil erosion destroyed some of the best farmland in the country. Homes, farms, industries, and entire towns were obliterated by the river’s rising waters. Communities fought to stave off the flood by organizing sandbagging activities to reinforce and raise the capacity of levees, and while some succeeded, over 1,000 levees eventually ruptured. All this carnage compelled President Bill Clinton to declare the region a disaster area, but local, state, and national agencies struggled to meet the demands of unprecedented relief efforts. While some individuals eagerly accepted assistance and attempted to rebuild their lives, many simply relocated to higher ground, believing that an idyllic life along the river’s banks was no longer possible.

Infrastructure Costs. This flood also produced dire consequences for the entire ecosystem along the Mississippi River. Herbicides from flooded farms were washed into the river and eventually threatened fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico. Deforestation occurred, and trees that survived remained highly vulnerable to disease, insect attack, and stress. Flooding provided various pest species, such as mosquitoes, with ample breeding grounds. When a fish farm flooded on one of the river’s tributaries, the Asian black carp escaped and endangered mussels and clams. Finally, ducks, which traditionally migrated to the region just in time for hunting season, bypassed the region because all the natural habitats and food sources were destroyed in the flood.

Agricultural and livestock production significantly declined as well and generated almost $9 billion in losses. Minnesota farmers burned wheat fields because they were too saturated to harvest. Corn and soybean yields dropped by 30 percent. These losses aided farmers in Indiana, Ohio, and other states that remained dry, but overall the loss of agricultural income decimated many state economies and forced the federal government to assume responsibility for disaster relief.

Other record losses shattered the transportation network. Damages to the infrastructure and revenue losses totaled $2 billion and forced many people out of work. Barges carry approximately 15 percent of all freight in America, with most of this traffic taking place along the Mississippi River. With the flood, however, over 2,900 barges and 50 towboats were stranded. Once the river reached the flood stage in June, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers halted all barge traffic, and by the end of July this industry was losing $3 million per day. This also caused widespread unemployment in St. Louis as over 3,200 dockworkers were laid off.

The railroad industry experienced similar problems; its losses amounted to $241 million. Tracks, bridges, and signals were decimated and forced companies to close or to seek alternate routes. Industry leaders such as Union Pacific and Canadian Pacific were forced to halt operations from Wisconsin to St. Louis. Amtrak’s Memphis-to-Chicago run had to be diverted 900 miles off course in order to complete its journey.

States were also forced to close roads and highways. More than 100 flooded roads and 56 bridges were shut down in Wisconsin, and in Missouri, many workers faced hours of delay in their daily commute to work. Finally, and most threatening, bridge traffic came almost to a halt. In early July, bridges were closed in Hannibal, Missouri, and Keokuk, Iowa. When the Quincy, Illinois, levee broke on July 15, there was no way to cross the river for a 250-mile area north of St. Louis. Coupled with the inability of ferries to operate in this weather, trucks and buses were forced to add over 200 miles to traditional delivery and transportation routes. Damage in this sector alone spawned over $1 billion in repair costs.

Personal Losses. Nothing, however, outweighed the personal tragedies. More than 74,000 people lost their homes, heirlooms, and belongings. As water levels swelled and levees ruptured, entire communities were eliminated, and for many the carnage was so immense that they decided to never return to the river’s edge. While the flood claimed many victims, the river towns did not go down without a fight. Communities built temporary levees with sandbags, plywood, and concrete. As the river continued to rise, people risked their safety to remain on the levees checking for seepage, leaks, and sand boils. These attempts, however, were highly unsuccessful. Over 80 percent of all state and local levees failed, causing many towns to evacuate.

Other towns were decimated beyond repair. Residents of Grafton, Illinois, along one of the most scenic stretches of highway in America, the Great River Road, were forced to flee as water covered the rooftops of many two-story homes. Roads in Alton, Illinois, were impassable, and water virtually obliterated many of the town’s historic landmarks. In Valmeyer, Illinois, the community labored to save the town, only to see it completely demolished by the flood. In fact, when the waters receded, Valmeyer residents decided to relocate their entire town to a bluff overlooking the river instead of rebuilding on the banks. The entire island of Kaskaskia, Illinois, was covered with over 20 feet of water after its 52-foot-high levee broke. Most residents felt confident that they could withstand this disaster, but their plight clearly reveals the power of the Mississippi. At 9:48 a.m. on July 22, the levee ruptured, and since the island’s bridge had previously been flooded out, everyone was forced to flee on two Army Corps of Engineers barges. Many livestock could not get out and drowned. By 2 p.m. Kaskaskia Island was entirely covered by water.

Effects on Towns. Both the devastation and personal courage that the flood generated can be observed in the story of one community. As the water traveled south down the river, the historic town of St. Genevieve, Missouri, was directly threatened. The home of several historical landmarks, including a number of two-hundred-year-old French colonial buildings, this town was the first European settlement west of the Mississippi River. It had experienced tragic floods in the past and had responded by building an elaborate set of levees and flood walls. It had survived the flood of 1973 when the river crested at 43 feet, and it had already begun to recover from a brief period of flooding in April. Yet nothing in its history could prepare St. Genevieve for its upcoming battle with the river.

Largely a town filled with quaint bed-and-breakfast inns, restaurants, and antique shops, St. Genevieve depended upon tourism for its survival. While the flood eliminated this industry and virtually destroyed the town’s economy, it did not diminish the community’s energetic struggle to avoid disaster. By the middle of July, Governor Mel Carnahan ordered in the National Guard in an effort to save one of America’s most valuable historic treasures. The media quickly flocked to Missouri to cover this event, and St. Genevieve was featured on every major news network. The governor also allowed local prison inmates to work on the levee, and volunteers flocked to Missouri to fill sandbags and offer relief help. For the rest of July, the nation watched as St. Genevieve fought for its survival.

The river, however, continued to rise. By the end of July, as the water level reached 48 feet, one levee ruptured, sending more than 8 feet of water over sections of the town, damaging a number of homes and businesses and knocking some buildings right off their foundation; the people continued to fight. Volunteers worked at a feverish pace to raise the main levee to 51 feet and staved off disaster when the river crested at a record level 49 feet on August 6. Employees at a local plastic plant saved their factory by volunteering their time to build a levee around their plant. Yet the flood claimed several casualties. Forty-one historic buildings were damaged, tourism became nonexistent, and all the levee work had significantly undermined the town’s service infrastructure.

The city of St. Louis, on the other hand, was spared. Once the river exceeded the 30-foot flood level, water started to steadily creep up the steps of the Gateway Arch. Several barges, including one containing a Burger King restaurant, broke away and crashed into the Popular Street Bridge. Oil refineries and petroleum processing plants threatened to dump poisonous chemicals into the river. Yet despite springing several leaks, the 50-foot flood wall held. Cities such as Des Moines, Iowa, and Kansas City and St. Joseph, Missouri, suffered record losses, but St. Louis’s riverfront property remained dry.

The Great Mississippi River Flood of 1993 was the most costly flood in recorded history to date. Some experts claim it represents a five-hundred-year-flood of unprecedented proportions due to its length, volume, and carnage. It permanently eliminated numerous small towns, obliterated historical treasures, and destroyed priceless memories such as wedding pictures, souvenirs, high school yearbooks, and family correspondence. While the Midwest’s struggle with the raging river held the nation’s attention for only a few months, the devastation it wrought will be forever remembered as one of the most costly natural disasters in history.

Bibliography

“America Under Water: A Special Section.” USA Today 123, no. 2590 (July, 1994).

Changnon, Stanley, ed. The Great Flood of 1993: Causes, Impacts, and Responses. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996.

Guillory, Dan. When the Waters Recede: Rescue and Recovery During the Great Flood. Urbana, Ill.: Stormline Press, 1996.

Myers, Mary Fran, and Gilbert F. White. “The Challenge of the Mississippi Floods.” In Environmental Management, edited by Lewis Owen and Tim Unwin. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1997.

National Weather Service. The Great Flood of 1993. National Disaster Survey Report. Washington, D.C.: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1994.

Pielke, Roger A., Jr. Midwest Flood of 1993: Weather, Climate, and Societal Impacts. Boulder, Colo.: National Center for Atmospheric Research, 1996.

Stevens, William K. The Change in the Weather: People, Weather, and the Science of Climate. New York: Delacorte Press, 1999.